## Annex 1. Overview of IMF-Developed Macro-Gender Toolkits

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### Major themes and context
- Global medium-term growth prospects are underwhelming; the frequency of adverse shocks has increased and fiscal space is limited.
- Diverging demographic trends: population aging in advanced economies and emerging markets; high population growth and a potential “youth bulge” in low-income and developing economies, requiring investments in human capital and social infrastructure.
- Gender equality is framed as a powerful engine for growth and resilience by enlarging labor supply and raising productivity over the short, medium, and long term.
- Persistent gender gaps and barriers highlighted:
  - Labor market gaps, especially in advanced economies despite easing after the COVID-19 “she-cession.”
  - Inequality of opportunity in emerging and developing economies (access to health, education, finance).
  - Harmful practices such as child marriage and persistent gender-based violence.
  - Disproportionate care burden on women, constraining time for paid work and leisure.
  - Low female representation in leadership positions affecting financial sector and private firm performance.

### Key quantitative findings and illustrative country results
- Average gain from closing gender gaps in labor force participation in emerging markets and developing economies (EMDEs): 23 percent of GDP.
- Progress illustration (top 5 percent of EMDE performers, 2014–2019):
  - Achieved an almost 6 percentage point reduction in labor force participation gaps.
  - A change of this magnitude would lead to an estimated real GDP increase of 7.7 percent.
- Country-level estimated GDP gains from closing labor force participation gaps (applications of IMF staff–developed toolkits):
  - Albania: 5 percent of GDP.
  - Montenegro: 14 percent of GDP.
  - Belize: 23 percent of GDP.
  - Bangladesh: 40 percent of GDP.
- Estimated increases in GDP per capita growth from reducing broader measures of gender inequality:
  - Mauritius: +0.8 ppt.
  - Saudi Arabia: +1.6 ppt.
  - Morocco: +1.5 ppt.
- Investments in childcare could accelerate GDP growth by 2.4 percentage points, with resulting tax revenues and pension contributions more than financing the cost of the reform.
- Korea: closing gender gaps in hours worked could lift GDP by 18 percent.
- Niger: estimated potential gains are close to 11 percent.
- Angola: improving female educational attainment to match males could increase annual GDP growth by about 0.2 percentage points.
- Guinea: eliminating child marriage suggests an estimated real GDP per capita growth impact of 2.3 percentage points.

### Mechanisms and additional considerations
- Greater female labor force participation increases workforce size and diversity, improving job matching and innovation—drivers of higher productivity.
- Over the longer term, gender equality raises investment in female education, producing a more skilled workforce and fostering innovation and entrepreneurship.
- Gender equality can help offset the economic effects of population aging by enabling the entry of women into the labor market to more than compensate for exits of older workers.
- Other structural forces interacting with gender outcomes:
  - Digitalization can create opportunities for women’s economic empowerment but may also exacerbate inequalities if not managed.
  - The green transition presents new opportunities but demands new skills.
- In countries with greater gender equality and a larger supply of STEM-educated workers, energy taxes are associated with larger reductions in the intensity of greenhouse gas emissions by 2 to 4 percentage points.

### Labor market trends, pandemic impacts, and leadership representation
- Over the past two decades:
  - Labor force participation gap narrowed in advanced economies by –8 ppts.
  - Labor force participation gap narrowed in low-income and developing countries by –3 ppts.
  - Gap remained stable in emerging markets.
- During the pandemic, women in 38 advanced economies and emerging markets were more likely than men to lose their jobs.
- Post-pandemic observations:
  - Advanced markets faced limited scarring due to sizable macroeconomic policy stimulus; labor force participation is above trend in some countries (Croatia, Finland, France, and Korea).
  - Several emerging markets continue to experience larger gender gaps, and female labor force participation has not returned to prepandemic levels.
  - In low-income and developing economies, female labor force participation has ticked upward since 2021, while the male rate has trended downward.
- Indicators of female leadership:
  - Women accounted for only 5 percent of chief executive officers of commercial banks as of end of 2022.
  - About 7 percent of the executive board of financial technology firms were women.
  - 16 percent of central bank governors were women.
- IMF bilateral surveillance examined macrocritical gender gaps in over one-fourth of the IMF’s membership between July 2022 and April 2024, covering labor force participation, wage gaps, and leadership.

### Inequality of opportunity, social outcomes, and time use
- Globally, women enjoy only two-thirds of the legal rights of men on average; discriminatory provisions and restrictions on economic opportunity exist in most countries.
- One in three women globally have been victims of violence; the incidence of violence rose during the pandemic.
- Child marriage amplifies population growth through adolescent fertility and lowers human capital via higher school dropout rates for girls.
- Time use (selected averages):
  - OECD countries: women allocate 127 minutes more to unpaid work than men; men dedicate 100 minutes more to paid work; men dedicate 43 minutes more to leisure activities.
  - Sub-Saharan Africa: women spend 249 minutes per day on unpaid care work compared with 87 minutes for men.
  - India: 7 in 10 women are outside of the labor force, with childcare or homemaking as the reported main reasons—63 percent are participating in unpaid activities (domestic duties, family business).
  - Panama: almost 4 in 10 women reported an increase in time spent on children’s education during the pandemic.

### Fiscal policy, public financial management, and gender-responsive measures
- Public investment in reliable, affordable, and safe transport supports women’s participation in the labor force (examples: Jordan, India).
- For OECD countries, public expenditure on early childhood education and childcare, active labor market programs, and unemployment benefits have a positive impact on female labor force participation.
- Eliminating explicit and implicit tax distortions can reduce secondary earner biases and enable dependent spouses (often women) to work more; examples include Japan, Greece, and Montenegro.
- Revenue administration can reduce gender biases by simplifying tax systems, tailoring services for female entrepreneurs, enhancing financial and tax literacy, and adopting digital technologies.
- Gender budgeting integrates a gender perspective into the budget process; well-designed efforts are embedded into legal, institutional, and medium-term budget frameworks (examples: Bangladesh, Grenada).
- Monitoring and evaluation in gender budgeting supports transparency and accountability; IMF capacity development on gender budgeting has expanded.
- Recent declines in gender-focused official development assistance dropped by $2 billion in 2023, with a significant shift from grants to loans for gender-related aid.

### Structural, legal, and financial inclusion reforms
- Provision of affordable and quality childcare is instrumental for women to enter the workforce (examples: Belize, Eswatini, Japan, Mexico, St. Lucia).
- Enhancing labor market flexibility enables women to balance work and family responsibilities (examples: India, Japan, Korea, Luxembourg).
- Parental leave policies (example: Japan) support both parents and promote more equitable caregiving distribution.
- Improving financial access supports female labor force participation and entrepreneurship (examples: Cote D’Ivoire, The Gambia, Rwanda).
- Mobile money examples:
  - Kenya: M-PESA boosted consumption and reduced poverty, particularly in female-headed households.
  - Niger: mobile money networks enhanced efficiency of cash transfer programs, saving time for recipients—predominantly women—and improving household nutrition.
- Legal reforms (examples: Kiribati, Mexico, Qatar) reduce gender inequality and foster economic development; successful implementation requires political will, robust legal frameworks, a fair judicial system, and continuous monitoring.
- IMF staff advised Jordan on amendments to the labor law to enhance protection against harassment and violence in the workplace and remove restrictions on female employment in certain professions and industries; further legal amendments are being considered to harmonize benefit rights for males and females in an actuarily neutral way.

### Assessing macrocriticality and benchmarking (toolkit components)
- Gender Data Hub: standardized macrocritical gender data; visualizations by topic, country, and availability.
  - Examples: Aruba performs ahead of the world average on female education and women in managerial positions but has room to progress in LFP; Iraq’s structural and policy gender gaps are larger than MENA, EM, and AE comparators.
- Macrocritical Indicators Dashboard: captures gender gaps across member countries and missing indicators by country; identifies macrocriticality in LT/DD selection (example: St. Lucia: high gender gap in informal employment vis-à-vis lower gaps in formal employment and LFP).
- Selected Macrocritical Indicators Tables: snapshot of trends and gender gaps for a selected country and comparators; recommended for staff reports.
- Gender Inequality Tool: measures gender gaps in outcomes, opportunities, and representation (example: Iraq’s gender gaps in health, education, legal rights, and finance compare poorly to peers).
- Gender Labor Market Tool: identifies key factors for employment gender gaps and quantifies driving factors (examples: Guinea; Iraq; Belize).

### Quantifying macroeconomic impacts (toolkits and results)
- Equity Gains Tool: “Back of the envelope” analysis of potential economic benefits to closing gender gaps in employment, hours worked, and wages.
  - Example: Albania: increasing female LFP would boost GDP by 5 percent. Closing wage gap, hours worked, and occupational differences would increase GDP by 10 percent.
- Child Marriage Tool: compares growth effects and informs policy decisions on child marriage.
  - Example: Guinea: eliminating child marriage could increase per capita real GDP growth by an estimated 2.3 percentage points.
- Growth Decomposition Toolkit: adapts a generalized method of moments (GMM) model to estimate relationship between gender inequality and growth (example: Kiribati).
- Growth Accounting (production function analysis):
  - Potential gains from reducing LFP gaps:
    - Mauritius: increases growth by 0.8 percent per year with OECD LFP average.
    - Saudi Arabia: increases growth by 1.6 percent per year with OECD/G20 average.
  - Estimates of closing human capital gaps:
    - Angola: could increase real GDP growth rate by 0.2 percentage points per year.
- Output Gains Tool: estimates economic gains from closing gender gaps in LFP from 1990 to 2022.
  - Potential output gains from closing gender gaps:
    - Bangladesh: 40 percent
    - Montenegro: 10 percent
    - Saudi Arabia: 1.6 percent per year with OECD/G20 average
    - Belize: 23 percent

### Policy tools and databases
- TaxFit: framework with a gender lens for examining tax and benefit rules (example application: Montenegro).
- Gender Budgeting Database: tracks gender budgeting efforts in over 100 countries (example applications: Mexico; Montenegro; Türkiye).
- Fuel Subsidy Tool: examines effect of fuel subsidies on male- and female-headed households by income level; status: Forthcoming applications.

### Annex tables, indicators, and empirical highlights
- Composite indices and labor/income indicators reported via Gender Data Hub aggregates and regional tables (latest available).
- Select numeric examples preserved as reported:
  - Female Human Capital Index (HCI) values reported on 0-1 scale.
  - Gender Gap (F-M) in Employment-to-Population Ratio, Modeled ILO Estimate (15-64 yrs): EMDEs/AEs entries and regional percentiles reported in tables.
  - Maternal Mortality Ratio per 100,000 Live Births, Modeled Estimate (15-49 yrs): table entries provided.
  - Total Fertility Rate (Births Per Woman) examples provided in regional tables.
- Detailed indicator percentiles, medians, and averages are provided in the Annex tables and are available from the Gender Data Hub metadata.

### Selected analytical and policy work — main themes
- Gender gaps and inclusive growth: job-rich, inclusive growth within resilient macroeconomic frameworks; absent significant policy efforts, gender gaps may never close.
- Legal reforms to reduce gender inequality: higher legal gender equality is associated with higher growth; laws on household dynamics, women’s agency, and travel influence female labor force participation.
- Monetary policy and central banks: Human Resources Gender Index for G7 central banks and ECB; contractionary monetary policy shocks reduce men’s employment more than women’s.
- Financial inclusion and digitalization: gender-disaggregated FAS data for 82 economies; social media/internet use linked to higher likelihood of supporting gender equality in political leadership in Sub-Saharan Africa.
- Fiscal and structural policy: revenue administration and public expenditure can advance female labor force participation; structural fiscal policy supports FLFP in OECD countries.
- Demographics and business cycle: policies to facilitate women’s work–life balance in aging and youth-bulge contexts; focus on human capital in LIDCs.
- Institutional integration: integrating gender into IMF work to mainstream gender across surveillance, lending, and capacity building.

### Capacity development — activities, coverage, and timing (selected)
- Gender budgeting CD and institutional strengthening:
  - South Africa, Burkina Faso, Kosovo, Guinea, Costa Rica, Togo — FY24.
  - Togo, Costa Rica, The Gambia, Lesotho, South Africa, Sierra Leone, Cambodia — FY23.
  - Egypt, Ethiopia, Togo, Cameroon, The Gambia, South Africa, Liberia, Costa Rica — Up to FY23.
- Gender budgeting workshops and regional engagements:
  - CCAMTAC; AFE-Tanzania regional; M2 panelist in G20's Women Ministerial forum in India; ATI IMF LEG, Gender Seminar in African countries; Cambodia country-specific workshop; PEFTAC; Latin America and Caribbean (virtual) — FY24.
  - PFTAC, UN Women Latin America, STI — FY23.
  - AFRITAC South, CARTAC, JVI, METAC Lebanon, ATI, AFW2 Nigeria, West Africa English language Countries, Cameroon, Joint FAD/UN workshop in the Western Balkans, Angola, Cambodia, AFE, STI-Asia, Inter-American Development Bank workshop — Up to FY23.
- Tax policy and gender:
  - CD mission Angola — Nov 2023.
- Public financial management and gender:
  - AFRITAC East and UN Women High-level Conference on Gender Equality — Tanzania, AFRITAC East Countries — Nov 2023.
- Revenue administration, climate and gender:
  - Workshop for Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Mongolia, and Uzbekistan — Oct 2023.
- Revenue administration and gender:
  - Strengthening Revenue Administration for Gender Equality — Eritrea, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, Rwanda, South Africa, South Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda — Jan 2024.
  - UN Women-HQ-AFE Tanzania workshop — Tanzania — Jan 2024.
  - Applying the World Customs Organization Assessment Tool with gender assessment — All CAPTAC member countries — 2024.
- Gender budgeting Community of Practice Network: Asia and Pacific; established in 2023.
- Legal barriers and fiscal law: legal reforms for women's economic empowerment training and workshops (examples: STI — Oct 2022; ATI — Mar 2023).
- Data collection/usage: Workshops on Financial Access Survey (FAS) — Jun 2022, Feb 2023, Nov 2023, Mar 2024.

### Policy directions and capacity development emphasis (summary)
- Policy design with a gender lens to amplify reform impact, including attention to:
  - Strengthening legal rights.
  - Addressing gendered aspects of fiscal policy.
  - Enhancing women’s work–life choices via structural reforms.
- Capacity development delivered so far has centered on integrating gender into public financial management systems through gender budgeting.
- IMF staff–developed toolkits and micro-founded equilibrium models are applied to quantify gains, assess costs, and guide policy prioritization.

*Source: Annex 1. Overview of IMF-Developed Macro-Gender Toolkits (gnsea2024003).*

### Annex 1. Overview of IMF-Developed Macro-Gender Toolkits __________________________________ 10

### Annex 1. Overview of IMF-Developed Macro-Gender Toolkits

### Major themes and context
- Global medium-term growth prospects are underwhelming; the frequency of adverse shocks has increased and fiscal space is limited.
- Diverging demographic trends: population aging in advanced economies and emerging markets; high population growth and a potential “youth bulge” in low-income and developing economies, requiring investments in human capital and social infrastructure.
- Gender equality is framed as a powerful engine for growth and resilience by enlarging labor supply and raising productivity over the short, medium, and long term.
- Persistent gender gaps and barriers highlighted:
  - Labor market gaps, especially in advanced economies despite easing after the COVID-19 “she-cession.”
  - Inequality of opportunity in emerging and developing economies (access to health, education, finance).
  - Harmful practices such as child marriage and persistent gender-based violence.
  - Disproportionate care burden on women, constraining time for paid work and leisure.
  - Low female representation in leadership positions affecting financial sector and private firm performance.

### Key quantitative findings and illustrative country results
- Average gain from closing gender gaps in labor force participation in emerging markets and developing economies (EMDEs): 23 percent of GDP.
- Progress illustration (top 5 percent of EMDE performers, 2014–2019):
  - Achieved an almost 6 percentage point reduction in labor force participation gaps.
  - A change of this magnitude would lead to an estimated real GDP increase of 7.7 percent.
- Country-level estimated GDP gains from closing labor force participation gaps (applications of IMF staff–developed toolkits):
  - Albania: 5 percent of GDP.
  - Montenegro: 14 percent of GDP.
  - Belize: 23 percent of GDP.
  - Bangladesh: 40 percent of GDP.
- Estimated increases in GDP per capita growth from reducing broader measures of gender inequality:
  - Mauritius: +0.8 ppt.
  - Saudi Arabia: +1.6 ppt.
  - Morocco: +1.5 ppt.

### Mechanisms and additional considerations
- Greater female labor force participation increases the size and diversity of the workforce, improving job matching and innovation—drivers of higher productivity.
- Over the longer term, gender equality raises investment in female education, producing a more skilled workforce and fostering innovation and entrepreneurship.
- Gender equality can help offset the economic effects of population aging by enabling the entry of women into the labor market to more than compensate for exits of older workers.
- Other structural forces interacting with gender outcomes:
  - Digitalization can create opportunities for women’s economic empowerment but may also exacerbate inequalities if not managed.
  - The green transition presents new opportunities but demands new skills.

### Policy directions and capacity development emphasis
- Policy design with a gender lens to amplify reform impact, including attention to:
  - Strengthening legal rights.
  - Addressing gendered aspects of fiscal policy.
  - Enhancing women’s work–life choices via structural reforms.
- Capacity development delivered so far has centered on integrating gender into public financial management systems through gender budgeting.
- IMF staff–developed toolkits and micro-founded equilibrium models are applied to quantify gains, assess costs, and guide policy prioritization (see Annex 1 for an overview of toolkits).

*Source: IMF | Gender Note NOTE/2024/003 — “Why a Gender Lens Matters: Unlocking Solutions to Macroeconomic Challenges”*

### 2019. Pandemic output loss: percent deviation of projected real GDP

### 2019. Pandemic output loss: percent deviation of projected real GDP

### Overview
- The content assesses how closing gender gaps and addressing gender-based barriers can influence GDP, productivity, labor force participation, and broader macroeconomic outcomes.
- The analysis highlights country-level findings, cross-country evidence, and policy recommendations spanning fiscal, structural, and legal reforms.

### Macroeconomic gains from closing gender gaps
- Investments in childcare could accelerate GDP growth by 2.4 percentage points, with resulting tax revenues and pension contributions more than financing the cost of the reform.
- In Canada, higher female labor force participation can mitigate the impact of population aging.
- In Korea, closing gender gaps in hours worked could lift GDP by 18 percent.
- In the Slovak Republic, a combination of raising female and old-age labor force participation rates, hours worked, and net inward migration could offset a negative medium-term growth impact of 0.6 percentage points from population aging.
- Higher STEM education for women in Japan could enhance total factor productivity growth by 20 percent and improve social welfare by 4 percent.
- In Kenya, equalizing male and female years of education in each income quantile could reduce poverty and increase GDP by 4.4 percent due to higher female productivity and labor force participation.
- In contexts of low productivity, high fertility, and lower human capital, estimated gains are higher: for instance, in Niger the estimated potential gains are close to 11 percent.
- In Angola, improving female educational attainment to match those of males could increase annual GDP growth by about 0.2 percentage points.
- For Guinea, eliminating child marriage suggests an estimated real GDP per capita growth impact of 2.3 percentage points.
- In countries with greater gender equality and a larger supply of STEM-educated workers, energy taxes are associated with larger reductions in the intensity of greenhouse gas emissions by 2 to 4 percentage points.

### Labor market trends and pandemic impacts
- Over the past two decades, the labor force participation gap narrowed in advanced economies by –8 ppts, and by –3 ppts in low-income and developing countries; it remained stable in emerging markets.
- During the pandemic, women in 38 advanced economies and emerging markets were more likely than men to lose their jobs.
- Less educated women with young children in the United States were the most adversely affected during the first nine months of the crisis.
- Since the pandemic:
  - Advanced markets faced limited scarring due to sizable macroeconomic policy stimulus; labor force participation is above trend in some countries (Croatia, Finland, France, and Korea).
  - Several emerging markets continue to experience larger gender gaps, and female labor force participation has not returned to prepandemic levels.
  - In low-income and developing economies, female labor force participation has ticked upward since 2021, while the male rate has trended downward.
- Indicators of female leadership:
  - Women accounted for only 5 percent of chief executive officers of commercial banks as of end of 2022.
  - About 7 percent of the executive board of financial technology firms were women.
  - 16 percent of central bank governors were women.
- IMF bilateral surveillance examined macrocritical gender gaps in over one-fourth of the IMF’s membership between July 2022 and April 2024, covering labor force participation, wage gaps, and leadership.

### Inequality of opportunity and social outcomes
- Globally, legal discriminatory provisions and restrictions on women’s economic opportunity exist in most countries; women enjoy only two-thirds of the legal rights of men.
- While school enrollment rates have increased globally, education outcomes remain lower for girls than for boys in some regions.
- Global access to financial services increased, but on average women have fewer accounts at financial institutions than men do.
- Health outcomes improved generally, but high adolescent fertility and maternal death rates remain significant in some countries.
- One in three women globally have been victims of violence; the incidence of violence rose during the pandemic.
- Child marriage amplifies population growth through adolescent fertility and lowers human capital via higher school dropout rates for girls.
- The IMF’s Gender Data Hub provides snapshots of macrocritical indicators and compares them to regional benchmarks.

### Care burden and time use
- In OECD countries, on average:
  - Women allocate 127 minutes more to unpaid work than men.
  - Men dedicate 100 minutes more to paid work.
  - Men dedicate 43 minutes more to leisure activities.
- In sub-Saharan Africa:
  - Women spend 249 minutes per day on unpaid care work compared with 87 minutes for men.
- In India, 7 in 10 women are outside of the labor force, with childcare or homemaking as the reported main reasons—63 percent are participating in unpaid activities (domestic duties, family business).
- In Panama, almost 4 in 10 women reported an increase in time spent on children’s education during the pandemic, reducing available time for paid work or leisure.

### Fiscal policy, public financial management, and gender-responsive measures
- Public investment in reliable, affordable, and safe transport supports women’s participation in the labor force (examples: Jordan, India).
- For OECD countries, public expenditure on early childhood education and childcare, active labor market programs, and unemployment benefits have a positive impact on female labor force participation.
- Eliminating explicit and implicit tax distortions can reduce secondary earner biases and enable dependent spouses (often women) to work more; examples include addressing secondary earner biases (Japan, Greece) and shifting to progressive income tax policies (Montenegro).
- Revenue administration can reduce gender biases by simplifying tax systems, tailoring services for female entrepreneurs, enhancing financial and tax literacy, and adopting digital technologies.
- Gender budgeting integrates a gender perspective into the budget process and is implemented variably; well-designed efforts are embedded into legal, institutional, and medium-term budget frameworks (examples: Bangladesh, Grenada).
- Incorporating monitoring and evaluation into gender budgeting supports transparency and accountability; capacity development by the IMF on gender budgeting has expanded.
- Recent declines in gender-focused official development assistance dropped by $2 billion in 2023, with a significant shift from grants to loans for gender-related aid.

### Structural reforms, legal reforms, and enabling opportunities
- Provision of affordable and quality childcare is instrumental for women to enter the workforce (examples: Belize, Eswatini, Japan, Mexico, St. Lucia).
- Enhancing labor market flexibility enables women to balance work and family responsibilities (examples: India, Japan, Korea, Luxembourg).
- Parental leave policies (example: Japan) support both parents and promote more equitable caregiving distribution.
- Improving financial access supports female labor force participation and entrepreneurship (examples: Cote D’Ivoire, The Gambia, Rwanda).
- Rapid adoption of digital financial services, if combined with addressing gender gaps in digital devices and technology, provides an opportunity to eliminate barriers to financial services.
- Mobile money examples:
  - In Kenya, M-PESA boosted consumption and reduced poverty, particularly in female-headed households.
  - In Niger, mobile money networks enhanced efficiency of cash transfer programs, saving time for recipients—predominantly women—and improving household nutrition.
- Legal reforms (examples: Kiribati, Mexico, Qatar) reduce gender inequality and foster economic development; successful implementation requires political will, robust legal frameworks, a fair judicial system, and continuous monitoring.
- IMF staff advised Jordan on amendments to the labor law to enhance protection against harassment and violence in the workplace and remove restrictions on female employment in certain professions and industries; further legal amendments are being considered to harmonize benefit rights for males and females in an actuarily neutral way.

### Final thoughts and policy implications
- Stronger integration of gender into macroeconomic analysis and policy can help improve governments’ ability to address key global macroeconomic challenges—such as sustainably boosting growth and managing the demographic transition—by amplifying the effect of policies and reforms.
- IMF staff have stepped up efforts to analyze barriers hindering women’s full potential and advise on policies to overcome them.
- Gradually integrating a gender lens into surveillance, lending, and capacity building, where gender gaps are macrocritical, and working with other development partners can help country authorities navigate the complex global economic landscape.

*Source: IMF | Gender Note (excerpt).*

### Annex 1. Overview of IMF-Developed Macro-Gender Toolkits

### Annex 1. Overview of IMF-Developed Macro-Gender Toolkits

### Assessing Macrocriticality and Benchmarking
- Gender Data Hub
  - Provides standardized, consistent macrocritical gender data; data visualizations by topic, country, and availability; download data.
  - Examples:
    - Aruba performs ahead of the world average and peers on female education and women in managerial positions; however, there is room for progress in labor force participation (LFP).
    - In Iraq, structural and policy gender gaps are larger than MENA, EM, and AE comparators.
- Macrocritical Indicators Dashboard
  - Captures gender gaps in key indicators across member countries and an overview of missing indicators by country.
  - Identifies and compares macrocriticality in LT/DD selection.
  - Example: St. Lucia: high gender gap in informal employment vis-à-vis lower gaps in formal employment and LFP.
- Selected Macrocritical Indicators Tables
  - Snapshot of trends and gender gaps for a selected country and its relevant comparison group across key topic areas; recommended for staff reports.
  - Internal applications to identify macrocritical gender gaps.
- Gender Inequality Tool
  - Measures gender gaps in outcomes, opportunities, and representation.
  - Example: Iraq’s gender gaps in health, education, legal rights, and finance compare poorly to peers and result in low female economic participation.
- Gender Labor Market Tool
  - Identifies key factors for employment gender gaps and quantifies significant driving factors.
  - Examples:
    - Guinea: 2020 surge in employment gaps reflects decrease in female LFP rate owing to women’s increased care responsibilities.
    - Iraq: the 60 percent LFP gender gap reflects underlying structural and policy inequalities.
    - Belize: the employment gender gap has fallen since 1991 owing to a rise in female LFP and an increase in the population of women.

### Quantifying Macroeconomic Impacts
- Equity Gains Tool
  - “Back of the envelope” analysis of potential economic benefits to closing gender gaps in employment, hours worked, and wages.
  - Example: In Albania, increasing female LFP would boost GDP by 5 percent. Closing also the wage gap, the hours worked, and any occupational difference would increase GDP by 10 percent.
- Child Marriage Tool
  - Compares growth effects and informs policy decisions to address child marriage and its impact on economic development.
  - Example: If child marriage were eliminated in Guinea, per capita real GDP growth could increase by an estimated 2.3 percentage points.
- Growth Decomposition Toolkit
  - Adapts a generalized method of moments (GMM) model to estimate the relationship between gender inequality and growth.
  - Example: In Kiribati, enabled counter-factual exercise to spotlight the impact of recent legal reforms.
- Growth Accounting
  - Production function analysis to estimate potential GDP gains from reducing labor market gender gaps (LFP and human capital).
  - Potential gains from reducing LFP gaps:
    - Mauritius: increases growth by 0.8 percent per year with OECD LFP average.
    - Saudi Arabia: increases growth by 1.6 percent per year with OECD/G20 average.
  - Estimates of closing human capital gaps:
    - Angola could increase real GDP growth rate by 0.2 percentage points per year.
- Output Gains Tool
  - Estimates economic gains from closing gender gaps in LFP from 1990 to 2022, with robustness checks.
  - Potential output gains from closing gender gaps:
    - Bangladesh: 40 percent
    - Montenegro: 10 percent
    - Saudi Arabia: 1.6 percent per year with OECD/G20 average
    - Belize: 23 percent

### Policy Tools
- TaxFit
  - Framework with a gender lens for systematically examining tax and benefit rules to assess tax liabilities for individuals and households.
  - Example application: Montenegro.
- Gender Budgeting Database
  - Tracks gender budgeting efforts in over 100 countries; offers visualization options.
  - Example applications: Mexico; Montenegro; Türkiye.
- Fuel Subsidy Tool
  - Examines effect of fuel subsidies on male- and female-headed households by income level; creates charts for sector, income, and gender-based analysis.
  - Status: Forthcoming applications.

### Annex Tables and Indicators (select highlights from Annex 2)
- Composite indices and labor/income indicators reported via Gender Data Hub aggregates and regional tables (latest available).
- Select numeric examples preserved as reported:
  - Female Human Capital Index (HCI) values reported on 0-1 scale (examples in tables).
  - Gender Gap (F-M) in Employment-to-Population Ratio, Modeled ILO Estimate (15-64 yrs): EMDEs/AEs entries and regional percentiles reported in tables.
  - Maternal Mortality Ratio per 100,000 Live Births, Modeled Estimate (15-49 yrs): table entries provided.
  - Total Fertility Rate (Births Per Woman) examples provided in regional tables.
- Note: Detailed indicator percentiles, medians, and averages are provided in the Annex tables and are available from the Gender Data Hub metadata.

### Selected Analytical and Policy Work (Annex 3) — Main findings and themes
- Gender gaps and inclusive growth
  - Promoting Inclusive Growth in the Middle East and North Africa: Challenges and Opportunities in a Post-Pandemic World: policies to boost job-rich and inclusive growth within a resilient macroeconomic policy framework.
  - When Will Global Gender Gaps Close?: Absent a significant step up in policy efforts, gender gaps may never close.
  - The Green Future: Labor Market Implications for Men and Women: gender gaps and wage gaps in green occupations; gender wage gap is smaller in green jobs.
  - Gender Equality and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa: overview of gender inequalities, case studies, and policy recommendations.
- Legal reforms to reduce gender inequality
  - Legal Gender Equality as a Catalyst for Convergence: higher legal gender equality is associated with higher growth.
  - Lawful Progress: impact of women’s legal rights on labor force participation; laws on household dynamics, women’s agency, and travel influence female labor force participation.
- Monetary policy and central banks
  - Who Are Central Banks? Gender, Human Resources, and Central Banking: Human Resources Gender Index for G7 central banks and the ECB; covers inclusion in economics professions, managerial positions, full-time contracts, and gender pay gap in central banks.
  - Monetary Policy and Labor Market Gender Gaps: contractionary monetary policy shocks reduce men’s employment more than women’s.
- Financial inclusion and digitalization
  - Trends and Developments for the Financial Access Survey (FAS): includes gender-disaggregated data for 82 economies.
  - Digitalization and Gender Equality in Political Leadership in Sub-Saharan Africa: social media/internet use linked to higher likelihood of supporting gender equality in political leadership.
- Fiscal and structural policy
  - Gender and Revenue Administration: Principles and Practices: how revenue administrations can consider gender equality.
  - The Role of Structural Fiscal Policy on Female Labor Force Participation in OECD Countries: panel vector error-correction model finds statistically significant positive impacts of government spending on FLFP.
  - Exploring the Role of Public Expenditure in Advancing Female Economic Empowerment and Gender Equality: overview for non-gender experts on fiscal expenditure’s role.
- Demographics and business cycle
  - Empowering Women and Tackling Demographic Challenges: policies to facilitate women’s work–life balance in aging and youth-bulge contexts; focus on human capital in LIDCs.
  - Gender and Business Cycles: literature review showing nuanced, non–gender-neutral patterns in economic fluctuations.
- Institutional integration
  - Integrating Gender into the IMF’s Work: argues IMF is filling a critical gap by mainstreaming gender into its work.

### Capacity Development (Annex 4) — Activities, coverage, and timing
- Gender budgeting CD and institutional strengthening
  - South Africa, Burkina Faso, Kosovo, Guinea, Costa Rica, Togo — FY24.
  - Togo, Costa Rica, The Gambia, Lesotho, South Africa, Sierra Leone, Cambodia — FY23.
  - Egypt, Ethiopia, Togo, Cameroon, The Gambia, South Africa, Liberia, Costa Rica — Up to FY23.
- Gender budgeting workshops and regional engagements
  - CCAMTAC; AFE-Tanzania regional; M2 panelist in G20's Women Ministerial forum in India; ATI IMF LEG, Gender Seminar in African countries; Cambodia country-specific workshop; PEFTAC; Latin America and Caribbean (virtual) — FY24.
  - PFTAC, UN Women Latin America, STI — FY23.
  - AFRITAC South, CARTAC, JVI, METAC Lebanon, ATI, AFW2 Nigeria, West Africa English language Countries, Cameroon, Joint FAD/UN workshop in the Western Balkans, Angola, Cambodia, AFE, STI-Asia, Inter-American Development Bank workshop — Up to FY23.
- Tax policy and gender
  - CD mission Angola — Nov 2023.
- Public financial management and gender
  - AFRITAC East and UN Women High-level Conference on Gender Equality — Tanzania, AFRITAC East Countries — Nov 2023.
- Revenue administration, climate and gender
  - Workshop on Strengthening Budget Institutions and Revenue Administration for Climate Change Action and Gender Equality — Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Mongolia, and Uzbekistan — Oct 2023.
- Revenue administration and gender
  - Strengthening Revenue Administration for Gender Equality — Eritrea, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, Rwanda, South Africa, South Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda — Jan 2024.
  - UN Women-HQ-AFE Tanzania workshop — Tanzania — Jan 2024.
  - Applying the World Customs Organization Assessment Tool with gender assessment (External collaborators: World Customs Organization) — All CAPTAC member countries — 2024.
- Gender budgeting Community of Practice Network
  - Asia and Pacific; established in 2023, following successful engagement at STI & PFTAC — Established in 2023.
- Legal barriers and fiscal law
  - Legal reforms for women's economic empowerment — Singapore Regional Training Institute, Africa Training Institute.
  - Tacking legal impediments to women's economic empowerment — STI — Oct 2022.
  - Addressing gender inequalities through fiscal law design — ATI — Mar 2023.
- Data collection/usage
  - Workshops on Financial Access Survey (FAS) — APD region; WHD region; CCAMTAC; EUR region — Jun 2022, Feb 2023, Nov 2023, Mar 2024.

*Source: Annex 1. Overview of IMF-Developed Macro-Gender Toolkits (gnsea2024003).*

### References

### References

### Academic articles, working papers, and IMF notes
- Aker, J. C., R. Boumnijel, A. McClelland, and N. Tierney. 2016. “Payment Mechanisms and Antipoverty Programs: Evidence from a Mobile Money Cash Transfer Experiment in Niger.” Economic Development and Cultural Change, 65 (1).
- Badel, A., and R. Goyal. 2024. “When Will Global Gender Gaps Close?” Economics Letters 237: 111544.
- Bluedorn, J., F. Caselli, N.-J. Hansen, I. Shitaba, and M. M. Tavares. 2021. “Gender and Employment in the COVID-19 Recession: Evidence on “She-Cessions.” IMF Working Paper 21/95, International Monetary Fund, Washington, DC.
- Cheung, M. Y. W., and B. Huang. 2024. “Gender Diversity and Corporate Resilience to Climate Change: Evidence from Greenfield Investments.” IMF Working Paper 24/157, International Monetary Fund, Washington, DC.
- Čihák, M., and R. Sahay. Forthcoming. “Women and Finance: A Post-Pandemic Update,” IMF Working Paper International Monetary Fund, Washington, DC.
- Coelho, M., A. Davis, A. Klemm, and C. Osorio-Buitron. 2022. “Gendered Taxes: The Interaction of Tax Policy with Gender Equality.” IMF Working Paper 22/026, International Monetary Fund, Washington, DC.
- Fabrizio, S., D. B. P. Gomes, and M. M. Tavares. 2021. “COVID-19 She-Cession: The Employment Penalty of Taking Care of Young Children.” IMF Working Paper 21/58, International Monetary Fund, Washington, DC.
- Gomes, D. B. P. 2024. “Gender and Business Cycles.” IMF Gender Note 24/001, International Monetary Fund, Washington, DC.
- Goyal, R., and R. Sahay. 2023. “Integrating Gender into the IMF’s Work.” IMF Gender Note 23/001, International Monetary Fund, Washington, DC.
- Hsieh, C.‐T., E. Hurst, C. I. Jones, and P. J. Klenow. 2019. “The Allocation of Talent and US Economic Growth.” Econometrica, 87 (5): 1439–74.
- Ji, Y., M. Oikomonou, C. Pizzinelli, I. Shibata, and M. Tavares. 2024. “The Impact of Reduced Commuting on Labor Supply and Household Welfare: A Post-Pandemic Analysis.” IMF Working Paper 24/094, International Monetary Fund, Washington, DC.
- Khera, P., S. Ogawa, R. Sahay, and M. Vasishth. 2022. “Women in Fintech: As Leaders and Users,” IMF Working Paper 22/140, International Monetary Fund, Washington, DC.
- Mitra, P., E. M. Pondi Endengle, M. Pant, and L. F. Almeida. 2020. “Does Child Marriage Matter for Growth?” IMF Working Paper 20/027, International Monetary Fund, Washington, DC.
- Ostry, D., J. A. Alvares, R. A. Espinoza, and C. Papageorgiou. 2018. “Economic Gains from Gender Inclusion: New Mechanisms, New Evidence.” IMF Staff Discussion Note 18/006, International Monetary Fund, Washington, DC.
- Ouedraogo, R., and D. Stenzel. 2021. “The Heavy Economic Toll of Gender-based Violence.” IMF Working Paper 21/277, International Monetary Fund, Washington, DC.
- Ouedraogo, R., and D. B. P. Gomes. 2023. “Macroeconomic Gains from Closing Gender Educational Gaps in Niger.” IMF Selected Issues Paper 23/006, Washington, DC.
- Pabilonia, S. W. and V. Vernon. 2023. “Who Is Doing the Chores and Childcare in Dual-Earner Couples during the COVID-19 Era of Working from Home? Review of Economics of the Household: 1–47.
- Sioson, E. P., C. J. Kim. 2019. “Closing the Gender Gap in Financial Inclusion through Fintech.” Asian Development Bank Institute Policy Brief 2019–3. Tokyo.
- Suri, T., and W. Jack. 2016. “The Long-run Poverty and Gender Impacts of Mobile Money.” Science 354 (6317): 1288–92.
- Thioune, F.K., G. Albertin, R. Kazandjian, and T. Wang. 2024. “COVID-19 and Gender Inequality: Impact in Southern Africa,” In Gender Equality and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa, edited by Lisa L. Kolovich and Monique Newiak. Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund.
- Tchelishvili, N., L. Keating, L. Gores, C. Renteria Rodriguez, and V. Tang. 2024. “Gender Budgeting Practices in Sub-Saharan Africa.” In Gender Equality and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa, edited by Lisa L. Kolovich and Monique Newiak. Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund.
- Thioune, F.K., G. Albertin, R. Kazandjian, and T. Wang. 2024. “COVID-19 and Gender Inequality: Impact in Southern Africa,” In Gender Equality and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa, edited by Lisa L. Kolovich and Monique Newiak. Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund.

### IMF-authored chapters, edited volumes, and staff discussion notes
- Alarakhia, M., Z. S. Ahmed, and T. Tanima. 2024. “Gender Inequality and Care Work: Valuing and Investing in Care.” In Gender Equality and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa, edited by Lisa L. Kolovich and Monique Newiak. Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund.
- Alexander, N., M. Cazzaniga, S. Fabrizio, F. Jaumotte, L. Li, J. Mondragon, S. Priano, and M.M. Tavares. 2024a. “Green Jobs and the Future of Work for Women and Men.” IMF Staff Discussion Note, 24/003, International Monetary Fund, Washington, DC.
- Alexander, N., L. Li, J. Mondragon, S. Priano, and M. M. Tavares. 2024b. “The Green Future: Labor Market Implications for Men and Women.” IMF Working Paper 24/156, International Monetary Fund, Washington, DC.
- Asai, M., Q. Chen, J. Honda, X. Hu, and Q. Zhang. 2024. “The Role of Structural Fiscal Policy on Female Labor Force Participation in OECD Countries.” IMF Working Paper 23/186, International Monetary Fund, Washington, DC.
- Bertray, A. C., L. Dordevic, and C. Sever. 2024. “A Causal Story: Gender Equality and Economic Growth.” In Gender Equality and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa, edited by Lisa L. Kolovich and Monique Newiak. Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund.
- Broccolini, C., A. Fruttero, and S. Jain. 2024. “Revisiting Trends in Gender Equality.” In Gender Equality and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa, edited by Lisa L. Kolovich and Monique Newiak. Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund.
- Christopherson Puh, K., A. Yiadom, J. Johnson, F. Fernando, and L. Gruet. 2024a. “Legal Rights: Women’s Economic Empowerment.” In Gender Equality and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa, edited by Lisa L. Kolovich and Monique Newiak. Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund.
- Christopherson Puh, K., A. Yiadom, J. Johnson, F. Fernando, and L. Gruet. 2024b. “Legal Rights: Women’s Economic Empowerment—Case Studies.” In Gender Equality and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa, edited by Lisa L. Kolovich and Monique Newiak. Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund.
- Coelho, M., A. Davis, A. Klemm, and C. Osorio-Buitron. 2022. “Gendered Taxes: The Interaction of Tax Policy with Gender Equality.” IMF Working Paper 22/026, International Monetary Fund, Washington, DC.
- Evans, B., A.D. Klemm, M. Soto, and C. Osorio-Buitron. 2024. “Tax and Expenditure Policy for Gender Equality.” In Gender Equality and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa, edited by Lisa L. Kolovich and Monique Newiak. Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund.
- Gomes, D. B. P., L. Kolovich, V. Malta, M. Newiak, R. Ouedraogo, and S. Priano. 2024. “Closing Education Gaps and Promoting Inclusive Development—Lessons from West Africa.” In Gender Equality and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa, edited by Lisa L. Kolovich and Monique Newiak. Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund.
- Gu, J., L. Kolovich, J. Mondragon, M. Newiak, and M. Herman. 2024. “Promoting Gender Equality and Tackling Demographic Challenges.” IMF Gender Note 24/002, International Monetary Fund, Washington, DC.
- Kolovich, L., and M. Newiak, eds. 2024. Gender Equality and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund.
- Kolovich, L., M. Newiak, and C. A. Pattillo. 2024. “How Gender Equality Can Shape Sub-Saharan African’s Development.” In Gender Equality and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa, edited by Lisa L. Kolovich and Monique Newiak. Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund.
- Kolovich, L. L., and A. Ndoye. 2023. “Implications of Gender Inequality for Growth in Morocco.” In Morocco’s Quest for Stronger and Inclusive Growth. Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund.
- Sayeh, A. M., A. Badel, and R. Goyal. 2023. “Countries That Close Gender Gaps See Substantial Growth Returns.” IMF Blog. September 27, 2023.
- Goyal, R., and R. Sahay. 2023. “Integrating Gender into the IMF’s Work.” IMF Gender Note 23/001, International Monetary Fund, Washington, DC.
- Gu, J., L. Kolovich, J. Mondragon, M. Newiak, and M. Herman. 2024. “Promoting Gender Equality and Tackling Demographic Challenges.” IMF Gender Note 24/002, International Monetary Fund, Washington, DC.
- Ji, Y., M. Oikomonou, C. Pizzinelli, I. Shibata, and M. Tavares. 2024. “The Impact of Reduced Commuting on Labor Supply and Household Welfare: A Post-Pandemic Analysis.” IMF Working Paper 24/094, International Monetary Fund, Washington, DC.
- Alexander, N., M. Cazzaniga, S. Fabrizio, F. Jaumotte, L. Li, J. Mondragon, S. Priano, and M.M. Tavares. 2024a. “Green Jobs and the Future of Work for Women and Men.” IMF Staff Discussion Note, 24/003, International Monetary Fund, Washington, DC.
- Alexander, N., L. Li, J. Mondragon, S. Priano, and M. M. Tavares. 2024b. “The Green Future: Labor Market Implications for Men and Women.” IMF Working Paper 24/156, International Monetary Fund, Washington, DC.
- Cheung, M. Y. W., and B. Huang. 2024. “Gender Diversity and Corporate Resilience to Climate Change: Evidence from Greenfield Investments.” IMF Working Paper 24/157, International Monetary Fund, Washington, DC.

### IMF country reports, policy papers, and IMF strategy documents
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2019a. “Nigeria: 2019 Article IV Consultation-Press Release; Staff Report; and Statement by the Executive Director for Nigeria.” IMF Country Report 19/092, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2019b. “Senegal: Staff Report for the 2018 Article IV Consultation and Seventh Review Under the Policy Support Instrument and Request for Modification of Assessment Criteria—Debt Sustainability Analysis-Press Release; Staff Report; and Statement by the Executive Director for Senegal.” IMF Country Report 19/027, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2020. “Sierra Leone: 2019 Article IV Consultation, Second Review Under the Extended Credit Facility Credit Facility Arrangement, Request for a Waiver of Nonobservance of Performance Criterion, and Financing Assurances Review.” IMF Country Report 20/116, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2022a. “IMF Strategy Towards Mainstreaming Gender.” IMF Policy Paper 2022/037, International Monetary Fund, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2022b. “Paraguay: 2022 Article IV Consultation––Press Release; and Staff Report.” IMF Country Report 22/177, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2022c. “Saudi Arabia: 2022 Article IV Consultation––Press Release; and Staff Report.” IMF Country Report 22/274, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2022d. “Sierra Leone: 2022 Article IV Consultation and Fifth Review under the Extended Credit Facility Arrangement, Requests for Waivers of Nonobservance of Performance Criteria, Modifications of Performance Criteria, and Financing Assurance Review––Press Release; Staff Report; and Statement by the Executive Director for Sierra Leone.” IMF Country Report 22/259, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2023a. “Angola: 2022 Article IV Consultation––Press Release; Staff Report; and Statement by the Executive Director for Angola.” IMF Country Report 23/100, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2023b. “Aruba: 2023 Kingdom of the Netherlands—2023 Article IV Consultation Discussions-Press Release; and Staff Report.” IMF Country Report 23/284, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2023c. “Australia: 2023 Article IV Consultation—Press Release; Staff Report; and Statement by the Executive Director for Australia.” IMF Country Report 24/011, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2023d. “Bangladesh: 2023 Article IV Consultation, First Reviews Under the Extended Credit Facility Arrangement, Arrangement Under the Extended Fund Facility, and the Resilience and Sustainability Facility Arrangement, Requests for a Waiver of Nonobservance of a Performance Criterion, and Modifications of Performance Criteria––Press Release; Staff Report; and Statement by the Executive Director for Bangladesh.” IMF Country Report 23/409, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2023e. “Belgium: 2023 Article IV Consultation––Press Release; Staff Report; and Statement by the Executive Director for Belgium.” IMF Country Report 23/386, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2023f. “Brazil: 2023 Article IV Consultation––Press Release; Staff Report; Staff Supplement; and Statement by the Executive Director for Brazil,” IMF Country Report 23/288, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2023g. “Costa Rica: 2023 Article IV Consultation, Fifth Review Under the Extended Arrangement Under the Extended Fund Facility, Second Review Under the Resilience and Sustainability Facility, and Request for Modification of Reform Measure.” IMF Country Report 23/442, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2023h. “Czech Republic: 2022 Article IV Consultation––Press Release; and Staff Report.” IMF Country Report 23/031, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2023i. “Republic of Estonia: 2023 Article IV Consultation-Press Release; and Staff Report.” IMF Country Report 23/275, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2023j. “Kingdom of Eswatini: 2023 Article IV Consultation––Press Release; Staff Report; and Statement by the Executive Director of Eswatini.” IMF Country Report 23/160, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2023k. “Grenada: 2023 Article IV Consultation––Press Release; and Staff Report.” IMF Country Report 23/261, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2023l. “Guinea: 2022 Article IV Consultation and Request for Disbursement Under the Rapid Credit Facility––Press Release; Staff Report; and Statement by the Executive Director for Guinea.” IMF Country Report 23/043, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2023m. “India: 2023 Article IV Consultation––Press Release; Staff Report; and Statement by the Executive Director for India.” IMF Country Report 23/426, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2023n. “Japan: 2023 Article IV Consultation––Press Release; Staff Report; and Statement by the Executive Director for Japan.” IMF Country Report 23/127, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2023o. “Jordan: 2023 Sixth Review Under the Extended Arrangement Under the Extended Fund Facility and Request for Modification of Performance Criteria—Press Release; and Staff Report.” IMF Country Report 23/240, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2023p. “Kiribati: 2023 Article IV Consultation––Press Release; and Staff Report.” IMF Country Report 23/329, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2023q. “Republic of Korea: 2023 Article IV Consultation––Press Release; Staff Report; and Statement by the Executive Director for the Republic of Korea.” IMF Country Report 23/369, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2023r. “Luxembourg: 2023 Article IV Consultation––Press Release; Staff Report; and Statement by the Executive Director for Luxembourg.” IMF Country Report 23/176, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2023s. “Mali: 2023 Article IV Consultation––Press Release; Staff Report; Staff Supplement; and Statement by the Executive Director for Mali.” IMF Country Report 23/209, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2023t. “Mexico: 2023 Article IV Consultation.” IMF Country Report 23/356, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2023u. “Mexico: Selected Issues.” IMF Country Report 23/357, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2023v. “Mongolia: 2023 Article IV Consultation––Press Release; and Staff Report.” IMF Country Report 23/348, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2023w. “Morocco: 2022 Article IV Consultation––Press Release and Staff Report.” IMF Country Report 23/042, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2023x. “Niger: 2022 Article IV Consultation and Second Review under the Extended Credit Facility Arrangement, and requests for a Waiver of No-observance of Performance Criterion and Modification of Performance Criteria-Press Release; Staff Report; and Statement by the Executive Director for Niger.” IMF Country Report 23/028, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2023y. “Panama: 2022 Article IV Consultation––Press Release; Staff Report; and Statement by the Executive Director for Panama.” IMF Country Report 23/284, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2023z. “Romania: 2023 Article IV Consultation––Press Release; and Staff Report.” IMF Country Report 23/395, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2023aa. “Rwanda: 2023 Article IV Consultation, Second Reviews Under the Policy Coordination Instrument and the Arrangement Under the Resilience and Sustainability Facility, Requests for the Modification of End December 2023 Quantitative Targets, Rephasing of Access Under the Resilience and Sustainability Facility, and Request for an Arrangement Under the Standby Credit Facility––Press Release; Staff Report; and Statement by the Executive Director for Rwanda.” IMF Country Report 23/422, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2023ab. “Romania: Selected Issues.” IMF Country Report 23/396, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2023ac. “Saudi Arabia: 2023 Article IV Consultation––Press Release; Staff Report; and Informational Annex.” IMF Country Report 23/323, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2023ad. “South Africa: 2023 Article IV Consultation––Press Release; Staff Report; and Statement by the Executive Director for South Africa.” IMF Country Report 23/194, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2023ae. “Republic of Türkiye: 2022 Article IV Consultation––Press Release; and Staff Report.” IMF Country Report 23/303, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2023af. “United Arab Emirates: 2022 Article IV Consultation-Press Release; and Staff Report.” IMF Country Report 23/223, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2023ag. “United States: 2023 Article IV Consultation
––Press Release; Staff Report; and Statement by the Executive Director for the United States.” IMF Country Report 23/303, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2023ah. “West Bank and Gaza: Report to the Ad Hoc Liaison Committee.” IMF Country Report 23/146, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2024a. “Interim Guidance Note on Mainstreaming Gender at the IMF.” IMF Policy Paper 2024/003, International Monetary Fund, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2024b. “Albania: 2023 Article IV Consultation––Press Release and Staff Report.” IMF Country Report 24/007, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2024c. “Angola: 2023 Article IV Consultation––Press Release; Staff Report; And Statement by the Executive Director for Angola.” IMF Country Report 24/080, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2024d. “Austria: Staff Report for the Article IV Consultation.” IMF Country Report 24/107, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2024e. “The Bahamas: 2023 Article IV Consultation––Press Release; and Staff Report.” IMF Country Report 24/039, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF).2024f. “Belize: 2024 Staff Report for Article IV Consultation and Selected Issues Paper.” IMF Country Report 24/124, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2024g. “Chile: 2023 Article IV Consultation-Press Release; Staff Report; and Statement by the Executive Director for Chile.” IMF Country Report 24/041, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2024h. “Guinea: 2024 Article IV Consultation and Request for Disbursement Under the Rapid Credit Facility––Press Release; Staff Report; and Statement by the Executive Director for Guinea.” IMF Country Report24/130, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF).2024i. “Iraq: 2024 Staff Report for the 2024 Article IV Consultation.” IMF Country Report 24/128, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2024j. “Iraq: 2024 Article IV Consultation––Selected Issues Paper.” IMF Country Report 24/129, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2024k. “Japan: 2024 Article IV Consultation-Press Release; Staff Report; and Statement by the Executive Director for Japan.” IMF Country Report 24/118, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2024l. “Jordan: Request for an Extended Arrangement Under the Extended Fund Facility and Cancellation of the Current Arrangement Under the Extended Fund Facility-Press Release; Staff Report; and Statement by the Executive Director for Jordan.” IMF Country Report 24/010, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2024m. “IMF Staff Completes 2024 Article IV Mission to Mauritius.” IMF Country Report 24/139, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2024n. “Mauritius: Selected Issues.” IMF Country Report 24/140, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2024o. “Montenegro: 2024 Article IV Consultation––Press Release and Staff Report.” IMF Country Report 24/101, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2024p. “Morocco: 2024 Article IV Consultation, Review Under the Flexible Credit Line Arrangement, First Review Under the Resilience and Sustainability Arrangement, and Rephrasing of Access Under the Resilience and Sustainability Facility––Press Release; Staff Report; and Statement by the Executive Director for Morocco.” IMF Country Report 24/99, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2024q. “Qatar: 2023 Article IV Consultation––Press Release; and Staff Report.” IMF Country Report 24/043, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2024r. “Slovak Republic: 2023 Article IV Consultation––Press Release and Staff Report.” IMF Country Report 24/075, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2024s. “St. Lucia: 2023 Article IV Consultation––Press Release; and Staff Report.” IMF Country Report 24/068, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2024t. “The Gambia: 2023 Article IV Consultation and Request for an Arrangement Under the Extended Credit Facility––Press Release; Staff Report; and Statement by the Executive Director for The Gambia.” IMF Country Report 24/015, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2024u. “West African Economic and Monetary Union: Selected Issues.” IMF Country Report 24/091, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2024v. “Uganda: Fifth Review Under the Extended credit Facility Arrangement and Request for Modification of Performance Criteria––Press Release; Staff Report; and Statement by the Executive Director for Uganda.” IMF Country Report 24/077, Washington, DC.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2024w. “Côte d’Ivoire: Request for an Arrangement under the Resilience and Sustainability––Press Release; Staff Report; and Statement by the Executive Director.” IMF Country Report 24/092, Washington, DC.

### Other reports, datasets, blogs, and organizational sources
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- Ji, Y., M. Oikomonou, C. Pizzinelli, I. Shibata, and M. Tavares. 2024. “The Impact of Reduced Commuting on Labor Supply and Household Welfare: A Post-Pandemic Analysis.” IMF Working Paper 24/094, International Monetary Fund, Washington, DC.
- Kolovich, K., V. Malta, M. Newiak, and U. Zafar. 2024 (forthcoming). “Leveling the Playing Field: Gender Equality and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa.” Regional Economic Outlook: Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC, October.
- Mitra, P., E. M. Pondi Endengle, M. Pant, and L. F. Almeida. 2020. “Does Child Marriage Matter for Growth?” IMF Working Paper 20/027, International Monetary Fund, Washington, DC.
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- Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD). 2021. “Time Use Surveys.” https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=TIME_USE.
- Pabilonia, S. W. and V. Vernon. 2023. “Who Is Doing the Chores and Childcare in Dual-Earner Couples during the COVID-19 Era of Working from Home? Review of Economics of the Household: 1–47.
- Sioson, E. P., C. J. Kim. 2019. “Closing the Gender Gap in Financial Inclusion through Fintech.” Asian Development Bank Institute Policy Brief 2019–3. Tokyo.
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- UN Population Division. 2022. Data Portal Population Division. Accessed September 23, 2024.https://population.un.org/dataportal/home?df=ffde2da3-a472-4cb4-8611-6ee47cae70ff.
- UN Women. 2020. “COVID-19 and Ending Violence Against Women and Girls.” UN Women Ending Violence against Women COVID-19 Brief. New York: UN Women.
- World Bank. 2024. “Women, Business and The Law 2024.” Washington, DC: World Bank Publications.
- World Health Organization (WHO). 2024. “Violence against Women.” Accessed September 23, 2024. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/violence-against-women.

*gnsea2024003 - References*

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_Source: https://www.imf.org/-/media/files/publications/gns/2024/english/gnsea2024003.pdf_