## 1. Status of GDP Compilation in 189 Economies: Six Criteria

## Source details

**Canonical URL:** [1. Status of GDP Compilation in 189 Economies: Six Criteria](https://www.imf.org/-/media/files/publications/wp/2018/wp1837.pdf)

## Other formats

- [Markdown version](/-/media/files/publications/wp/2018/wp1837.pdf.md)
- [Structured JSON version](/-/media/files/publications/wp/2018/wp1837.pdf.json)

---

### Introduction and Six Key Criteria
- Reliable GDP data are critical for macroeconomic and financial policy analysis including IMF surveillance.
- Six key criteria to assess whether GDP data are fit for purpose:
  - (1) years elapsed since the most recent benchmark year,
  - (2) the availability of annual and quarterly GDP,
  - (3) timeliness of dissemination,
  - (4) availability of GDP by production, expenditure, and income approaches,
  - (5) independent compilation of GDP by the production and expenditure approach,
  - (6) the vintage of the SNA applied.
- The assessment covers the Fund’s 189-member economies, mainly in terms of the World Economic Outlook (WEO) regional groups, and is based on publicly available information including the IMF’s Dissemination Standards Bulletin Board (DSBB), inputs from 108 developing economies via the IMF’s Regional Technical Assistance Centers (RTACs), the UNSD’s National Accounts Official Country Data database, and the World Bank’s database on Statistical Capacity Indicators.
- The dataset used in this paper is available in the technical appendix published separately.

### Years Elapsed Since the Benchmark Year — Rationale and Good Practice
- Definitions:
  - Benchmark year: year in which an economy’s transactions are comprehensively measured and accurately reflect the structure of the economy (in current price GDP).
  - Base year: year of the weights used to measure constant price GDP; benchmark and base years do not necessarily coincide. When a country adopts chain-linking, the base year is updated annually.
- Benchmark revisions are often the most significant element of national accounts revisions and are typically needed when the structure of an economy evolves or when more or better data become available.
- Good practice: benchmark GDP estimates every 10 years or less to incorporate newly available and revised data sources, enhanced coverage, and improved estimation methods.
- Benchmarking exercises typically require comprehensive household budget surveys, recent population censuses, business structural surveys or censuses, and up-to-date business registers; compiling these statistics is costly and may take several months.

### Key Findings on Benchmark Year Age (Aggregate and Regional)
- Aggregate findings:
  - About 50 percent of the economies updated their benchmark year within the last 10 years.
  - For 65 economies (34 percent) the benchmark year is between 11 to 15 years old.
  - The benchmark year is older than 15 years in 30 economies (16 percent).
- Regional breakdown (counts and percents as reported):
  - Advanced Economies: 35 95, 2 5, 0 0, Total 37
  - Commonwealth of Independent States: 7 64, 1 9, 3 27, Total 11
  - Emerging and Developing Asia: 12 40, 11 37, 7 23, Total 30
  - Emerging and Developing Europe: 10 83, 1 8, 1 8, Total 12
  - Latin America and the Caribbean: 5 16, 19 59, 8 25, Total 32
  - MENA, Afghanistan, and Pakistan: 8 36, 9 41, 5 23, Total 22
  - Sub-Saharan Africa: 17 38, 22 49, 6 13, Total 45
  - Memo: G-20 Economies: 18 90, 2 10, 20
  - Total Economies: 94 50*, 65 34, 30 16, Total 189
- Note on the asterisk in the Total row: *This represents 90.5 percent of the world GDP (current values of 2016).

### Implications and Illustrative Impacts of Benchmark Updates
- Updating outdated benchmark years can have large impacts on both the level and growth rate of GDP; impacts vary widely across economies depending on developments since the previous benchmarking exercise, the robustness of compilation methods, and the quality of source data.
- Examples from Africa after benchmarking:
  - Nigeria: the level of GDP in current prices was 89 percent higher.
  - Ghana: 60 percent higher.
  - Zambia: 25 percent higher.
  - Botswana: 10 percent lower.
- Benchmark updates typically lead to more accurate estimates of the size of economies and of their production and consumption structures by incorporating new or existing activities or products that were previously not captured or were ill-measured.

### Availability of Annual and Quarterly GDP
- Annual GDP is produced by 188 of the 189 economies in the study.
- Currently, 133 economies (70 percent of the total) disseminate quarterly GDP.
- Regional shares compiling quarterly GDP:
  - Sub-Saharan Africa: 53 percent
  - Middle East, North Africa, Afghanistan and Pakistan: 50 percent
  - Emerging and Developing Asia: 40 percent
  - Other regions: between 80 and 100 percent
- Economies that compile quarterly GDP represent approximately 97 percent of world GDP (current values of 2016).
- Selected exact figures from Table 3:
  - Annual GDP — Production (current prices): total 187 economies (99 percent).
  - Annual GDP — Production (constant prices): total 186 economies (98 percent).
  - Annual GDP — Expenditure (current prices): total 174 economies (92 percent).
  - Annual GDP — Expenditure (constant prices): total 157 economies (83 percent).
  - Memo: annual GDP by production or expenditure: 188 economies (99 percent).
  - Quarterly GDP — Production (current prices): total 118 economies (62 percent).
  - Quarterly GDP — Production (constant prices): total 127 economies (67 percent).
  - Quarterly GDP — Expenditure (current prices): total 98 economies (52 percent).
  - Quarterly GDP — Expenditure (constant prices): total 94 economies (50 percent).
  - Memo: quarterly accounts: production or expenditure: 133 economies (70 percent).
- Vintage of SNA adoption:
  - SNA 2008 / ESA 2010: 98 economies (52 percent of economies representing 94 percent of world GDP).
  - SNA 1993: 89 economies (47 percent).
  - SNA 1968: 2 economies.

### Timeliness of Annual and Quarterly GDP
- Timeliness definitions: SDDS/SDDS Plus require annual data within nine months and quarterly GDP within one quarter.
- Fund staff estimates as of October 2017:
  - Annual GDP release:
    - 9 months or less: 137 economies (73 percent)
    - 10 - 15 Months: 20 economies (11 percent)
    - Later than 15 Months: 32 economies (17 percent)
    - Total: 189 economies
  - Quarterly GDP release:
    - 3 months or less: 104 economies (55 percent)
    - 4 - 6 Months: 4 economies (2 percent)
    - Later than 6 Months: 25 economies (13 percent)
    - Total: 133 / 189
- Advance Release Calendars (ARCs):
  - 57 percent of economies have ARCs.
  - Of economies with ARCs: 7 percent correspond to SDDS Plus, 32 percent to SDDS, and 17 percent to e-GDDS economies.
  - Regional ARC availability (highlights):
    - Advanced Economies: ARC 97 percent
    - Emerging and Developing Europe: ARC 92 percent
    - Commonwealth of Independent States: ARC 82 percent
    - Sub-Saharan Africa: ARC 44 percent
    - Latin America and the Caribbean: ARC 44 percent
    - Emerging and Developing Asia: ARC 43 percent
    - MENA, Afghanistan, and Pakistan: ARC 23 percent

### GDP by Production, Expenditure, and Income
- Ideal estimation: three approaches — production, expenditure (current and constant prices), and income (current prices).
- Coverage:
  - Virtually all economies compile annual GDP in current and constant prices from the production approach.
  - Current and constant price GDP from the expenditure side are compiled by 174 and 157 economies respectively.
  - About 64 percent of economies compile at least some components of annual GDP by the income approach.
  - GDP from the income approach is reported by 119 economies (63 percent).
  - Availability of income approach by region (percent of economies):
    - Sub-Saharan Africa: 53 percent
    - MENA, Afghanistan, and Pakistan: 52 percent
    - Latin America and the Caribbean: 50 percent
    - Emerging and Developing Asia: 41 percent
- Quarterly specifics:
  - Quarterly GDP from the production approach in constant prices: 127 economies.
  - Quarterly GDP from the expenditure approach in constant prices: 94 economies.
  - The expenditure-constant quarterly approach is particularly limited in:
    - MENA, Afghanistan and Pakistan: 14 percent
    - Sub-Saharan Africa: 22 percent

### Data on GDP by Production and Expenditure Derived Independently
- Independent derivation enables cross-validation and reconciliation; supply and use tables are recommended by the SNA.
- Production and expenditure GDP are derived independently by 48 percent of the economies.
- 52 percent of economies do not derive production and expenditure independently.
- The proxy used: economies producing supply and use tables or reporting statistical discrepancies in GDP (of the 189 economies, 173 compile both Production and Expenditure GDP).

### Vintage of the SNA Applied and Impacts
- Adoption status:
  - 2008 SNA: 98 economies (52 percent of economies representing 94 percent of world GDP)
  - 1993 SNA: 89 economies (47 percent)
  - 1968 SNA: 2 economies
- Effects of 2008 SNA implementation (OECD and EU evidence):
  - OECD weighted average impact on GDP-level in 2010: 3.1 percent (range 1.2 to 5.1 percent).
  - Average increases due to capitalization:
    - R&D: 2.2 percent
    - Military Weapons Systems: 0.3 percent
  - Difference in GDP growth for OECD average over 1992–2012: generally within +/- 0.1 percentage points.
  - EU impact (ESA 2010): increase in GDP of 2.3 percent.
  - Selected country impacts:
    - Sweden: 4.4 percent
    - Finland: 4.2 percent
    - United States: 4 percent
  - Gross fixed capital formation revisions in EU (2010 combined impact of ESA 2010 and statistical improvements): 12.9 percent for the EU as a whole; Ireland 35.4 percent; Sweden 30.2 percent.
- Implications for developing economies:
  - Impact of capitalizing R&D and Military Weapons Systems depends on relative size of these expenditures to GDP.
  - Many emerging market and middle-income economies could see impacts similar to OECD/EU economies.
  - In many low-income economies, R&D component likely to be small.

### Conclusions and Further Research
- Key findings:
  - About 50 percent of the 189 economies estimate GDP using benchmark data not older than 10 years; these countries represent 91 percent of world GDP.
  - Virtually all economies compile annual GDP data; 71 percent of economies compile quarterly GDP, representing about 97 percent of GDP.
  - Timeliness issues:
    - Annual data delayed more than 15 months in 32 economies (17 percent).
    - Quarterly data delayed more than six months in 25 economies (13 percent).
  - Production approach is more developed than expenditure approach in many developing economies.
  - Income approach is less developed except in Advanced Economies and the Commonwealth of Independent States.
  - Independent production and expenditure estimates compiled by 48 percent of economies; lack of independence in 52 percent reduces users’ ability to judge data quality.
  - About 52 percent of economies compile according to the 2008 SNA; most others apply the 1993 SNA.
  - Adoption of the 2008 SNA has resulted in relatively small changes to GDP growth but larger, mostly upward, changes to GDP levels affecting policy ratios such as debt-to-GDP.
- Capacity development priorities recommended:
  - Updating the benchmark year.
  - Developing quarterly GDP data.
  - Deriving production and expenditure GDP independently.
  - Improving the timeliness of dissemination.
  - Where updates cause significant revisions: backcasting series to address breaks and effective communication with data users.
  - Adoption and publication of Advance Release Calendars to provide predictability and signal sound management.
- Suggested future research topics:
  - Whether GDP captures the informal economy or estimates of household production.
  - Availability of consistent time series for adequate periods.
  - Appropriate use of deflators to derive GDP in constant prices.
  - Coverage of other national accounts components, for example the government sector.
  - Repeating the study in 3–5 years to monitor improvements over time.

*Source: IMF Working Paper wp1837 (excerpts as provided).*

### 1. Status of GDP Compilation in 189 Economies: Six Criteria ...........................................................5

### 1. Status of GDP Compilation in 189 Economies: Six Criteria

### Introduction and Six Key Criteria
- Reliable GDP data are critical for macroeconomic and financial policy analysis including IMF surveillance.
- The paper identifies six key criteria to assess whether GDP data are fit for purpose:
  - (1) years elapsed since the most recent benchmark year,
  - (2) the availability of annual and quarterly GDP,
  - (3) timeliness of dissemination,
  - (4) availability of GDP by production, expenditure, and income approaches,
  - (5) independent compilation of GDP by the production and expenditure approach,
  - (6) the vintage of the SNA applied.
- The assessment covers the Fund’s 189-member economies, mainly in terms of the World Economic Outlook (WEO) regional groups, and is based on publicly available information including the IMF’s Dissemination Standards Bulletin Board (DSBB), inputs from 108 developing economies via the IMF’s Regional Technical Assistance Centers (RTACs), the UNSD’s National Accounts Official Country Data database, and the World Bank’s database on Statistical Capacity Indicators.
- The dataset used in this paper is available in the technical appendix published separately.

### Years Elapsed Since the Benchmark Year — Rationale and Good Practice
- The benchmark year refers to the year in which an economy’s transactions (production—including input costs—, consumption, capital formation, international trade, and taxes) are comprehensively measured and accurately reflect the structure of the economy (in current price GDP).
- The base year refers to the year of the weights used to measure constant price GDP; benchmark and base years do not necessarily coincide. When a country adopts chain-linking, the base year is updated annually.
- Benchmark revisions are often the most significant element of national accounts revisions and are typically needed when the structure of an economy evolves or when more or better data become available.
- Good practice: benchmark GDP estimates every 10 years or less to incorporate newly available and revised data sources, enhanced coverage, and improved estimation methods.
- Benchmarking exercises typically require comprehensive household budget surveys, recent population censuses, business structural surveys or censuses, and up-to-date business registers; compiling these statistics is costly and may take several months.

### Key Findings on Benchmark Year Age (Aggregate and Regional)
- About 50 percent of the economies updated their benchmark year within the last 10 years.
- For 65 economies (34 percent) the benchmark year is between 11 to 15 years old.
- The benchmark year is older than 15 years in 30 economies (16 percent).
- Regional breakdown (Table 2) — counts and percents as reported:
  - Advanced Economies: 35 95, 2 5, 0 0, Total 37
  - Commonwealth of Independent States: 7 64, 1 9, 3 27, Total 11
  - Emerging and Developing Asia: 12 40, 11 37, 7 23, Total 30
  - Emerging and Developing Europe: 10 83, 1 8, 1 8, Total 12
  - Latin America and the Caribbean: 5 16, 19 59, 8 25, Total 32
  - MENA, Afghanistan, and Pakistan: 8 36, 9 41, 5 23, Total 22
  - Sub-Saharan Africa: 17 38, 22 49, 6 13, Total 45
  - Memo: G-20 Economies: 18 90, 2 10, 20
  - Total Economies: 94 50*, 65 34, 30 16, Total 189
- Note on the asterisk in the Total row: *This represents 90.5 percent of the world GDP (current values of 2016).

### Implications and Illustrative Impacts of Benchmark Updates
- Updating outdated benchmark years can have large impacts on both the level and growth rate of GDP; impacts vary widely across economies depending on developments since the previous benchmarking exercise, the robustness of compilation methods, and the quality of source data.
- Examples from Africa after benchmarking:
  - Nigeria: the level of GDP in current prices was 89 percent higher.
  - Ghana: 60 percent higher.
  - Zambia: 25 percent higher.
  - Botswana: 10 percent lower.
- Benchmark updates typically lead to more accurate estimates of the size of economies and of their production and consumption structures by incorporating new or existing activities or products that were previously not captured or were ill-measured.

*Source: Fund staff estimates as of October 2017; Economies are grouped according to IMF WEO regional classification.*

### 8.8 percent.

### 8.8 percent.

### Availability of Annual and Quarterly GDP
- Annual GDP is produced by 188 of the 189 economies in the study.
- Currently, 133 economies (70 percent of the total) disseminate quarterly GDP.
- Regional shares compiling quarterly GDP:
  - Sub-Saharan Africa: 53 percent
  - Middle East, North Africa, Afghanistan and Pakistan: 50 percent
  - Emerging and Developing Asia: 40 percent
  - Other regions: between 80 and 100 percent
- Economies that compile quarterly GDP represent approximately 97 percent of world GDP (current values of 2016).
- From Table 3 (selected exact figures):
  - Annual GDP — Production (current prices): 37 economies (100 percent) in Advanced Economies; total 187 economies (99 percent).
  - Annual GDP — Production (constant prices): total 186 economies (98 percent).
  - Annual GDP — Expenditure (current prices): total 174 economies (92 percent).
  - Annual GDP — Expenditure (constant prices): total 157 economies (83 percent).
  - Memo: annual GDP by production or expenditure: 188 economies (99 percent).
  - Quarterly GDP — Production (current prices): total 118 economies (62 percent).
  - Quarterly GDP — Production (constant prices): total 127 economies (67 percent).
  - Quarterly GDP — Expenditure (current prices): total 98 economies (52 percent).
  - Quarterly GDP — Expenditure (constant prices): total 94 economies (50 percent).
  - Memo: quarterly accounts: production or expenditure: 133 economies (70 percent).
- Vintage of SNA adoption (Table 3 / text):
  - SNA 2008 / ESA 2010: 98 economies (52 percent of economies representing 94 percent of world GDP).
  - SNA 1993: 89 economies (47 percent).
  - SNA 1968: 2 economies.

### Timeliness of Annual and Quarterly GDP
- Timeliness definitions: SDDS/SDDS Plus require annual data within nine months and quarterly GDP within one quarter.
- Using these criteria (Fund staff estimates as of October 2017):
  - Annual GDP release:
    - 9 months or less: 137 economies (73 percent)
    - 10 - 15 Months: 20 economies (11 percent)
    - Later than 15 Months: 32 economies (17 percent)
    - Total: 189 economies
  - Quarterly GDP release:
    - 3 months or less: 104 economies (55 percent)
    - 4 - 6 Months: 4 economies (2 percent)
    - Later than 6 Months: 25 economies (13 percent)
    - Total: 133 / 189
- Advance Release Calendars (ARCs):
  - 57 percent of economies have ARCs.
  - Of economies with ARCs: 7 percent correspond to SDDS Plus, 32 percent to SDDS, and 17 percent to e-GDDS economies.
  - Regional ARC availability (Figure 4 highlights):
    - Advanced Economies: ARC 97 percent
    - Emerging and Developing Europe: ARC 92 percent
    - Commonwealth of Independent States: ARC 82 percent
    - Sub-Saharan Africa: ARC 44 percent
    - Latin America and the Caribbean: ARC 44 percent
    - Emerging and Developing Asia: ARC 43 percent
    - MENA, Afghanistan, and Pakistan: ARC 23 percent

### GDP by Production, Expenditure, and Income
- Ideal estimation: three approaches — production, expenditure (current and constant prices), and income (current prices).
- Coverage (text and Table 3):
  - Virtually all economies compile annual GDP in current and constant prices from the production approach.
  - Current and constant price GDP from the expenditure side are compiled by 174 and 157 economies respectively.
  - About 64 percent of economies compile at least some components of annual GDP by the income approach.
  - GDP from the income approach is reported by 119 economies (63 percent).
  - Availability of income approach by region (percent of economies):
    - Sub-Saharan Africa: 53 percent
    - MENA, Afghanistan, and Pakistan: 52 percent
    - Latin America and the Caribbean: 50 percent
    - Emerging and Developing Asia: 41 percent
- Quarterly specifics:
  - Quarterly GDP from the production approach in constant prices: 127 economies.
  - Quarterly GDP from the expenditure approach in constant prices: 94 economies.
  - The expenditure-constant quarterly approach is particularly limited in:
    - MENA, Afghanistan and Pakistan: 14 percent
    - Sub-Saharan Africa: 22 percent

### Data on GDP by Production and Expenditure Derived Independently
- Independent derivation enables cross-validation and reconciliation; supply and use tables are recommended by the SNA.
- Production and expenditure GDP are derived independently by 48 percent of the economies.
- 52 percent of economies do not derive production and expenditure independently.
- The proxy used: economies producing supply and use tables or reporting statistical discrepancies in GDP (of the 189 economies, 173 compile both Production and Expenditure GDP).

### Vintage of the SNA Applied and Impacts
- Adoption status:
  - 2008 SNA: 98 economies (52 percent of economies representing 94 percent of world GDP)
  - 1993 SNA: 89 economies (47 percent)
  - 1968 SNA: 2 economies
- Effects of 2008 SNA implementation (OECD and EU evidence):
  - OECD weighted average impact on GDP-level in 2010: 3.1 percent (range 1.2 to 5.1 percent).
  - Average increases due to capitalization:
    - R&D: 2.2 percent
    - Military Weapons Systems: 0.3 percent
  - Difference in GDP growth for OECD average over 1992–2012: generally within +/- 0.1 percentage points.
  - EU impact (ESA 2010): increase in GDP of 2.3 percent.
  - Selected country impacts:
    - Sweden: 4.4 percent
    - Finland: 4.2 percent
    - United States: 4 percent
  - Gross fixed capital formation revisions in EU (2010 combined impact of ESA 2010 and statistical improvements): 12.9 percent for the EU as a whole; Ireland 35.4 percent; Sweden 30.2 percent.
- Implications for developing economies:
  - Impact of capitalizing R&D and Military Weapons Systems depends on relative size of these expenditures to GDP.
  - Many emerging market and middle-income economies could see impacts similar to OECD/EU economies.
  - In many low-income economies, R&D component likely to be small.

### Conclusions and Further Research
- Key findings:
  - About 50 percent of the 189 economies estimate GDP using benchmark data not older than 10 years; these countries represent 91 percent of world GDP.
  - Virtually all economies compile annual GDP data; 71 percent of economies compile quarterly GDP, representing about 97 percent of GDP.
  - Timeliness issues:
    - Annual data delayed more than 15 months in 32 economies (17 percent).
    - Quarterly data delayed more than six months in 25 economies (13 percent).
  - Production approach is more developed than expenditure approach in many developing economies.
  - Income approach is less developed except in Advanced Economies and the Commonwealth of Independent States.
  - Independent production and expenditure estimates compiled by 48 percent of economies; lack of independence in 52 percent reduces users’ ability to judge data quality.
  - About 52 percent of economies compile according to the 2008 SNA; most others apply the 1993 SNA.
  - Adoption of the 2008 SNA has resulted in relatively small changes to GDP growth but larger, mostly upward, changes to GDP levels affecting policy ratios such as debt-to-GDP.
- Capacity development priorities recommended:
  - Updating the benchmark year.
  - Developing quarterly GDP data.
  - Deriving production and expenditure GDP independently.
  - Improving the timeliness of dissemination.
  - Where updates cause significant revisions: backcasting series to address breaks and effective communication with data users.
  - Adoption and publication of Advance Release Calendars to provide predictability and signal sound management.
- Suggested future research topics:
  - Whether GDP captures the informal economy or estimates of household production.
  - Availability of consistent time series for adequate periods.
  - Appropriate use of deflators to derive GDP in constant prices.
  - Coverage of other national accounts components, for example the government sector.
  - Repeating the study in 3–5 years to monitor improvements over time.

*Source: IMF Working Paper wp1837 (excerpts as provided).*

### REFERENCES

### REFERENCES

### Cited works and publications
- Alexander, Thomas, Claudia Dziobek, Marco Marini, Eric Metreau and Michael Stanger. 2017. “Measure up: A Better Way to Calculate GDP.” IMF Staff Discussion Notes No. 17/02.
- Carson, Carol S, Sarmad Khawaja, and Thomas K Morrison. 2003. "Revisions Policy for Official Statistics: A Matter of Governance." IMF Working Paper No. 04/87.
- Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Statistics Division. 2016. National Accounts Statistics: Main Aggregates and Detailed Tables, 2016. 2017: United Nations.
- Dippelsman, Robert, Claudia Dziobek, and Carlos A. Gutiérrez Mangas. 2012. “What Lies Beneath: The Statistical Definition of Public Sector Debt.” IMF Staff Discussion Note No. 12/09.
- Dippelsman, Robert, Venkat Josyula, and Eric Métreau. 2016. “Fixed Base Year vs. Chain Linking in National Accounts: Experience of Sub-Saharan African Countries.” IMF Working Paper No. 16/133.
- Dunn, Marianthi, and Leonidas Akritidis. 2014. "The impact of ESA 2010 on key indicators of the national accounts in Europe." Eurostat Review on National Accounts and Macroeconomic Indicators 7-27.
- European Commission, IMF, OECD, UN, World Bank. 2009. System of National Accounts, 2008. New York: United Nations.
- International Monetary Fund, Statistics Department. 2012. Data Quality Assessment Framework for National Accounts Statistics. DC: IMF.
- International Monetary Fund. Dissemination Standards Bulletin Board. Accessed September 2017. http://dsbb.imf.org/.
- International Monetary Fund. 2016. Guide for Participants and Users: Enhanced General Data Dissemination System.
- International Monetary Fund. 2017. Quarterly National Accounts Manual - Concepts, Data Sources, and Compilation. DC: IMF.
- International Monetary Fund. 2013. The Special Data Dissemination Standard: Guide for Subscribers and Users. DC: IMF.
- Olinto Ramos Roberto, Gonzalo Pastor, and Lisbeth Rivas. 2008. “Latin America: Highlights from the Implementation of the System of National Accounts 1993 (1993 SNA).” IMF Working Paper No. 08/239.
- United Nations Statistics Division. 2017. National Accounts Official Country Data. August 31. Accessed October 2017. http://data.un.org/Explorer.aspx?d=SNA.
- United Nations Statistics Division. 2017. National Accounts Statistics: Main Aggregates and Detailed Tables, 2016. New York: United Nations.
- Van de Ven, Peter. 2015. "New standards for compiling national accounts: what’s the impact on GDP and other macro-economic indicators?" OECD Statistics Brief, February: No. 20.
- World Bank. Data on Statistical Capacity. Accessed October 2017. http://datatopics.worldbank.org/statisticalcapacity/.

*Source: wp1837 - REFERENCES*

---


_Source: https://www.imf.org/-/media/files/publications/wp/2018/wp1837.pdf_