## Box 1. Better gender data enhancing financial inclusion of women in Egypt

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### CBE policy agenda and data collection
- The Central Bank of Egypt (CBE) prioritized promotion and coordination of a gender-inclusive financial system addressing the specific needs of women.
- CBE issued guidelines to banks to collect and report gender-disaggregated data with the aims of:
  - tracking the progress of women’s financial inclusion; and
  - mapping demand-side and supply-side data covering both households and MSMEs.
- Together with the Alliance for Financial Inclusion (AFI) and Data2X, the CBE is building a national sex-disaggregated supply-side data collection framework to create:
  - a comprehensive overview of women’s access to and use of financial services; and
  - a scalable model for collecting, using, and disseminating national supply-side sex-disaggregated data.

### Consumer protection, financial literacy, and digital infrastructure
- CBE strengthened financial consumer protection regulations.
- CBE enhanced awareness of and access to financial literacy programmes through the Egyptian Banking Institute (EBI), the CBE’s training arm.
- CBE invested in enhanced digital financial infrastructure to capitalise on increasing mobile phone ownership rates, including amongst women.
- Gender data reported by Egyptian Financial Regulatory Authority showed a significant gender gap in mobile payment users, prompting a need to raise awareness among women.
- In response, CBE is encouraging increased mobile wallet use by changing regulations and allowing banks to digitise savings wallets.

### Regional and international engagement
- CBE is co-leading AFI’s Financial Inclusion Data (FID) Working Group which aims to:
  - develop a common framework among members for measuring financial inclusion; and
  - share lessons learned regarding target setting, survey methodology, analysis and the usage of data to inform policymaking.
- The FID Working Group:
  - analyses data and indicator definitions;
  - develops adequate data collection methodologies;
  - advises on objective policy targeting; and
  - guides data analysis to enable evidence-based financial inclusion policymaking and regulation.

### Global initiatives and data uptake
- Data2X: collaborative technical and advocacy platform to improve availability, quality, and use of gender data for women and girls worldwide.
  - URLs in source: https://data2x.org/resource-center/ and https://data2x.org/what-we-do/we-strengthen-the-production-and-use-of-gender-data/we-partner-with-data-producers-to-improve-established-data-systems/womens-financial-inclusion-data/
- IMF Financial Access Survey (FAS) has begun asking countries for sex-disaggregated supply-side data; "27 countries reported this data in the 2017 FAS" and the IMF is stepping up outreach to accelerate progress.
  - URL in source: https://data.imf.org/?sk=E5DCAB7E-A5CA-4892-A6EA-598B5463A34C
- Multilateral Development Banks work on financing women-led firms and collecting supply-side sex-disaggregated bank data through the G20 sponsored Women’s Entrepreneurship Finance Initiative (WE-Fi).
  - URL in source: https://we-fi.org/
- The Alliance for Financial Inclusion (AFI) is described as a member-owned network promoting evidence-based financial inclusion policy solutions.
  - URL in source: https://www.afi-global.org/sites/default/files/publications/2019-04/AFI_Egypt%20gender_AW_digital.pdf
- Additional toolkit/resource URL in source: https://www.unece.org/stats/gender/toolkit.html

*Source: Box 1. Better gender data enhancing financial inclusion of women in Egypt, wpiea2021059-print-pdf*

### Box 1. Better gender data enhancing financial inclusion of women in Egypt .........................17

### Box 1. Better gender data enhancing financial inclusion of women in Egypt

### Available content
- Title: "Better gender data enhancing financial inclusion of women in Egypt".
- Location: page 17 of the source PDF.

*Source: https://www.imf.org/-/media/files/publications/wp/2021/english/wpiea2021059-print-pdf.pdf (Box 1, page 17)*

### Box 6. Summary .........................................................................................................

### Box 6. Summary

### I. Introduction
- Inclusive growth requires a clear focus on gender equality because women constitute 50 percent of the world’s population.
- Purpose: offer entry points to analysis of gender gaps and policy discussions; provide references and tools to support policy makers in developing country-specific responses.
- Paper structure: overview of drivers and links to growth (Section II); dimensions of gender inequality and resulting gaps (Section III); policy approaches and case studies (Section IV); suggestions for future research (Section V); main messages and conclusions (Section VI).

### II. Why achieving gender equality matters for inclusive growth
- Empirical associations and estimates:
  - Positive association between gender equality and per capita GDP.
  - Estimates by Cuberes and Teignier (2016): long-run income loss from underused economic potential of women ranges between 10 percent in Europe and Central Asia to 38 percent in the Middle East and North Africa.
  - OECD: greater educational attainment (especially girls) accounted for about half of economic growth in OECD countries over the past 50 years.
  - Higher labor force participation among women in Nordic countries explains 10-20 percent of the annual average growth in GDP per capita over the past 40-50 years.
  - Japan: raising female labor force participation to the level of the other G7 countries (excluding Italy) would permanently increase GDP per capita by around 4 percent compared to no policy change.
- Wider impacts:
  - Gender inequality restricts the talent pool, reduces resource allocation efficiency, and can lower GDP growth.
  - Closing gender gaps can favor macroeconomic and financial stability, economic diversification, and export diversification.
  - Greater representation of women in banking leadership roles may be associated with greater financial stability.

### III. Key dimensions of gender gaps and findings
- Aggregate measures:
  - WEF Global Gender Gap (2020): women have achieved 68 percent parity with men globally → global gender gap stands at 32 percent.
  - UNDP Gender Inequality Index measures reproductive health, empowerment, and economic status.

- Labor market participation:
  - World average labor force participation rates (2019): women around 48 percent; men around 75 percent.
  - Regional gaps: South Asia and MENA economic participation gaps stand at around 60 percent; North America, Eastern and Western Europe gaps between 22 and 31 percent.
  - By income group: lower middle-income countries have the largest gaps in economic participation.
  - Examples: Nepal female participation over 80 percent; Pakistan female participation 24 percent; South Asia regional female participation around 26 percent.

- Education and STEM:
  - Global average share of women among STEM graduates from tertiary education was around 35 percent in 2016.
  - Examples: Finland (third in WEF ranking) share of female tertiary STEM graduates below 30 percent in 2016; Oman share 53 percent.
  - “Educational-gender-equality paradox” noted: more gender-equal countries can have larger STEM gaps.

- Reproductive health and contraception:
  - Among 1.1 billion women in need of family planning, 270 million have an unmet need for contraception.
  - Access to modern contraception linked to changes in women’s economic status and career choices.

- Health and survival:
  - China, India, and Sub-Saharan Africa account for 87 percent of the world’s missing girls and excess female mortality.
  - World average natural sex ratio at birth around 105 (105 males per 100 females); China at 112.6; India at 110.
  - Globally, 70 percent of health sector workers are women; in the EU this share is 78 percent.
  - In Sub-Saharan Africa, excess female mortality in reproductive years accounts for 78 percent of overall excess female mortality in HIV/AIDS countries.

- Violence against women (VAW):
  - WHO: about 35 percent of women globally have experienced physical and/or sexual violence in their lifetime by an intimate partner.
  - Financial costs for survivors: survey finds average financial cost for survivors of domestic violence over $100,000 for medical and legal expenses, and four times higher for women than for men in that survey.
  - Legal protections: 45 economies still do not have legislation on domestic violence; out of 155 economies with provisions, only 101 define domestic violence as physical, psychological, sexual and economic abuse in line with international good practices.

- Legal barriers, social norms, stereotypes, and implicit bias:
  - Restrictive laws and social norms associated with low female economic participation (notably MENA and South Asia).
  - UNDP Gender Social Norm Index: 91 percent of men and 86 percent of women in 75 countries demonstrate at least one bias against gender equality; about 50 percent of men and women say “they think that men make better political leaders than women.”

- Financial inclusion and entrepreneurship:
  - Worldwide, 37 percent of women have a formal bank account compared with 46 percent of men.
  - Gender gaps in financial inclusion persist across all income groups in developing countries and constrain entrepreneurship and access to finance.

- Types and quality of employment:
  - Women more likely employed in social and personal service sectors; men more in goods and construction.
  - Women more likely to work part-time, in precarious employment, and informal arrangements; more likely to be in vulnerable employment in developing countries.

- Technological change and future of work:
  - Women tend to perform more repetitive and less analytical tasks and are underrepresented in design and application of new technologies, including artificial intelligence.
  - Algorithmic recruitment can perpetuate gender pay gaps by targeting better-paid listings toward men.

- Unpaid work:
  - Women perform on average more than two additional hours of unpaid work per day than men.
  - ILO: women perform 76.2 percent of total hours of unpaid care work globally; in Asia and the Pacific this rises to 80 percent.
  - Estimates suggest policies to reduce and redistribute unpaid work could bring gains up to 4 percent of GDP.

- Political empowerment:
  - Women lag far behind men globally in political empowerment; closest to parity around 37 percent in Western Europe and South Asia; largest gaps in Central Asia and MENA.

- Life-cycle effects and motherhood penalty:
  - Parenthood widens gender gaps in economic participation; reproductive years show declines in female labor force participation.
  - Long-run “child penalty” estimates for mothers: around 21-26 percent in Scandinavian countries and up to 51-61 percent in Austria and Germany; fathers’ earnings remain virtually unchanged in these countries.

- Pension and old-age vulnerability:
  - Ten percent more men receive a pension than women.
  - EIGE: gender gap in pensions around 37 percent across EU member states in 2018; pensions gap similar or above 40 percent across six EU countries and below 10 percent in only three member states.
  - In 41 low Human Development Index countries reporting pension data: 17 percent of men and 11 percent of women have access to pensions.

### IV. Data gaps and monitoring
- Sex-disaggregated data shortfalls limit assessment of needs and policy impacts across macro, infrastructure, finance, health, and safety domains.
- Initiatives and resources:
  - World Bank Gender Data Portal as a comprehensive source for sex-disaggregated data.
  - Data2X and Alliance for Financial Inclusion (AFI) efforts to promote sex-disaggregated data collection (including in agriculture and financial inclusion).
  - Korea cited as a champion in gender statistics development, requiring time and political determination.

### V. Policy implications (summarized directions from the content)
- Address legal barriers and discriminatory laws to expand economic participation.
- Improve access to education (including STEM), health services, and family planning to support women’s economic opportunities.
- Reduce and redistribute unpaid care work through policies that expand care services and promote shared caregiving responsibilities.
- Strengthen financial inclusion initiatives for women to improve entrepreneurship and access to finance.
- Enforce and expand legislation protecting women from domestic violence and workplace sexual harassment.
- Collect and expand high-quality sex-disaggregated data to inform targeted policy design and evaluation.

*Source: wpiea2021059-print-pdf - Box 6. Summary (IMF working paper content provided).*

### Box 1. Better gender data enhancing financial inclusion of women in Egypt

### Box 1. Better gender data enhancing financial inclusion of women in Egypt

### CBE policy agenda and data collection
- The Central Bank of Egypt (CBE) prioritized promotion and coordination of a gender-inclusive financial system addressing the specific needs of women.
- CBE issued guidelines to banks to collect and report gender-disaggregated data with the aim of:
  - tracking the progress of women’s financial inclusion; and
  - mapping demand-side and supply-side data covering both households and MSMEs.
- Together with the Alliance for Financial Inclusion (AFI) and Data2X, the CBE is building a national sex-disaggregated supply-side data collection framework to create:
  - a comprehensive overview of women’s access to and use of financial services; and
  - a scalable model for collecting, using, and disseminating national supply-side sex-disaggregated data.

### Consumer protection, financial literacy, and digital infrastructure
- CBE strengthened financial consumer protection regulations.
- CBE enhanced awareness of and access to financial literacy programmes through the Egyptian Banking Institute (EBI), the CBE’s training arm.
- CBE invested in enhanced digital financial infrastructure to capitalise on increasing mobile phone ownership rates, including amongst women.
- Gender data reported by Egyptian Financial Regulatory Authority showed a significant gender gap in mobile payment users, prompting a need to raise awareness among women.
- In response, CBE is encouraging increased mobile wallet use by changing regulations and allowing banks to digitise savings wallets.

### Regional and international engagement
- CBE is co-leading AFI’s Financial Inclusion Data (FID) Working Group which aims to:
  - develop a common framework among members for measuring financial inclusion; and
  - share lessons learned regarding target setting, survey methodology, analysis and the usage of data to inform policymaking.
- The FID Working Group:
  - analyses data and indicator definitions;
  - develops adequate data collection methodologies;
  - advises on objective policy targeting; and
  - guides data analysis to enable evidence-based financial inclusion policymaking and regulation.

### Global initiatives and data uptake
- Data2X: collaborative technical and advocacy platform to improve availability, quality, and use of gender data for women and girls worldwide.
  - URLs in source: https://data2x.org/resource-center/ and https://data2x.org/what-we-do/we-strengthen-the-production-and-use-of-gender-data/we-partner-with-data-producers-to-improve-established-data-systems/womens-financial-inclusion-data/
- IMF Financial Access Survey (FAS) has begun asking countries for sex-disaggregated supply-side data; "27 countries reported this data in the 2017 FAS" and the IMF is stepping up outreach to accelerate progress.
  - URL in source: https://data.imf.org/?sk=E5DCAB7E-A5CA-4892-A6EA-598B5463A34C
- Multilateral Development Banks work on financing women-led firms and collecting supply-side sex-disaggregated bank data through the G20 sponsored Women’s Entrepreneurship Finance Initiative (WE-Fi).
  - URL in source: https://we-fi.org/
- The Alliance for Financial Inclusion (AFI) is described as a member-owned network promoting evidence-based financial inclusion policy solutions.
  - URL in source: https://www.afi-global.org/sites/default/files/publications/2019-04/AFI_Egypt%20gender_AW_digital.pdf
- Additional toolkit/resource URL in source: https://www.unece.org/stats/gender/toolkit.html

*Source: Box 1. Better gender data enhancing financial inclusion of women in Egypt, wpiea2021059-print-pdf*

### Box 2. Access to justice for women entrepreneurs in Jordan

### Box 2. Access to justice for women entrepreneurs in Jordan

### Challenges identified
- Women entrepreneurs in Jordan often lack awareness about their legal rights, how to access legal advice, or the costs and risks involved.
- Low degree of gender sensitivity among justice actors can lead to unintended biased decisions that adversely affect women-owned businesses.
- Justice system access and unequal treatment undermine women’s legal capacities and the distribution of resources when economic rights are at stake.
- Market acquisition of property is still biased in favor of men despite improvements in inheritance pathways.
- Women face higher risks in job displacement from automation: "180 million jobs that are mostly held by women at present would be at high risk of being displaced globally."111

### Policy responses and recommendations (specific to Jordan and general lessons)
- Capacity building across the judiciary system, including judges, prosecutors, mediators, and bar associations, to raise gender sensitivity (citation to EBRD, IDLO, Centre for Women’s Studies at the University of Jordan).98
- Develop legal aid on civil and family matters, and enhance availability and quality of legal aid services.99
- Make selection processes within the judicial system transparent and open to all, with a focus on promoting career advancement for women to top-level positions.100
- Strengthen the use of mediation in commercial disputes.
- Improve the affordability of legal representation and offer legal awareness training for women entrepreneurs.
- Promote more equitable gender composition of legal professionals by actively promoting legal careers to influence educational and career choices of women.100

### Broader related policy areas and measures (summarized from surrounding context)
- Frameworks for land tenure:
  - Mandatory joint titling of land for married couples is recommended to reduce gender gaps in land tenure.
  - Pro-active measures are necessary to guarantee equal access to financial resources, particularly access to credit for poor rural households typically headed by women.
- Labor market policies:
  - Increasing labor force participation among married women can change bargaining positions within the family and public policies.
  - Active Labor Market Policies (ALMPs) have a greater positive effect on women’s employment than on men’s, particularly where women’s labor force participation is low.107
  - ALMPs include training institutions, job search assistance, subsidies for taking up jobs, and job-creation initiatives; typically integrated with unemployment benefits to promote re-entry after childbirth and child-rearing.109
  - Expenditure-side measures: family benefits (e.g., paid parental leave), subsidized childcare, subsidies to businesses to encourage hiring of women.
  - Revenue-side measures: tax benefits to promote labor supply, individual taxation to reduce the tax burden on the second earner, targeted tax relief for single earners.
- Technology and skills:
  - Policies should enhance access to ICT connectivity and skills, focus on lifelong learning for lower-skilled women, regulate digital jobs platforms, and integrate women into AI design and application to avoid baked-in gender bias.
- Recognize domestic activities as unpaid work and reduce the burden of care and domestic work:
  - Investing two percent of GDP in public provision of childcare and elder care services in seven OECD countries would have a significantly larger growth impact than an equally sized investment in construction; for the US, such an investment would create 13 million new jobs, most of which would be taken by women.113
  - Redistribute care tasks more equally between men and women through infrastructure (day-care, nursing homes) and tax-funded paid parental leave for fathers.
  - ILO data (2015): leave entitlements for fathers were provided in at least 94 countries of the 170 covered.
  - Current average parental leave durations cited: "7 days for fathers compared to 106 days for mothers."
  - Example uptake: Denmark — 24 percent of fathers take parental leave (transferable); Sweden — 90 percent of fathers use paternal leave when it is "use it or lose it."
- Education, training and skills:
  - Promote accumulation of women’s human capital, legal and financial literacy to reduce asset ownership and wage gaps.
  - Break occupational segregation by enhancing education for women in subjects where they are underrepresented, like STEM, starting in pre-kindergarten and continuing through primary and secondary education.
  - Strengthen cooperation between education authorities and employers, provide female role models, improve career guidance, and introduce work-based learning models (apprenticeships, traineeships).
- Financial inclusion:
  - Women are more likely to be excluded from the formal financial sector where laws and norms discriminate against women, women have lower labor market participation, collateral and bankruptcy laws are weaker, and state-owned banks have a bigger share in the banking system.119
  - Governments should monitor and influence state-owned bank behavior to ensure equal access for women to financial services.
- Health and social protection:
  - In low-income countries and emerging market economies, better provision of clean water, sanitation, maternal health services, and HIV/AIDS prevention is key to reducing excess girls and female mortality.
  - Strengthening social protection related to long-term care and support for informal caregivers can help mitigate health disadvantages borne by women.

*Source: Box 2. Access to justice for women entrepreneurs in Jordan (wpiea2021059-print-pdf).*

### Box 3. Case study: Enhancing the employment of women in Central Asia

### Box 3. Case study: Enhancing the employment of women in Central Asia

### Institutional cooperation and objectives
- Entities involved: Commission for Families, Demographics, and Gender; Ministries for Labor and Education; private sector via the Foreign Investment Council.
- Stated objectives:
  - (i) introduce better career guidance and progression routes from STEM education / vocational training into jobs for women and young people, specifically in the Power & Energy and Natural Resources Sectors where women continue to be underrepresented in technical and higher-paid roles;
  - (ii) enhance national-level skills standards so that they reflect the needs of employers;
  - (iii) remove labor market restrictions that currently bar women from performing a wide range of (largely technical) roles.

### Legal and regulatory reform
- 2018 Kazakh Labor Code reform:
  - removed 96 types of work from a list of 287 jobs that women are barred from accessing due to perceived adverse working conditions and the performance of hard physical work.

*Source: wpiea2021059-print-pdf - Box 3. Case study: Enhancing the employment of women in Central Asia*

### 6. Summary

### 6. Summary

### V. SUGGESTED RESEARCH TOPICS
- 39 V.SUGGESTED RESEARCH TOPICS
- The ground covered in the previous sections suggests several aspects that call for further analysis either because the information is missing, or the evidence is inconclusive. This is a list of the most pressing issues raised above.
- a. A wealth of policies has been implemented to address gender inequality in its various dimensions. For example, legislated quotas in political and business higher echelons. Apart from some field studies, empirical analysis of the macroeconomic impact of these measures is still poor.
- b. Numerous studies have pointed at the benefits of transparency to foster policy-makers’ accountability. Although several NGOs around the world promote and defend gender equality in the budgetary process, a rigorous analysis of the impact on the quality and results of the process in countries where such NGOs are operating is still missing.
- c. Recent studies have shown that Artificial Intelligence is biased against minorities and women because of the sample sets used to train the systems. What is the current cost suffered by women in terms of failed employment applications and denied credit access? And what would need to be done to address this problem?
- d. Women’s presence in the “essential sectors” is very significant. The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic is ambiguous: essential workers did not suffer from lay off (or furlough), but were more exposed to the virus. What is the welfare net effect?
- e. What kind of interventions help reduce intimate partner violence? Much better data collection needs to be done to know the fundamental statistics. These are often not collected, itself an important form of gender bias.
- f. What are the pros and cons of mandatory labor income transparency?
- g. What measures other than incentivized paternity leave can help make the father an equal partner in the household?
- h. There is a growing proportion of single mothers. How do policies need to be redesigned in order to align more with single mothers’ needs?
- i. What are the most effective ways to change cultural norms that are gender biased? How do they depend on the arena (e.g. child marriage, STEM representation, political aspirations)?

### VI. CONCLUDING REMARKS
- Countries around the globe have made considerable progress in narrowing gender gaps in many areas of life.
- Female labor force participation and employment have increased and the wage gap relative to men has narrowed practically across all countries.
- This important change reflects many factors, including achievements in education and a growing proportion of women who join and stay in the labor market while combining their work with raising children.
- Despite this progress, gender gaps still persist. Gender disadvantages vary across countries, areas, and age profiles.
- Lower-income countries are still struggling in achieving gender parity in educational attainment and experience excess female mortality.
- Countries across all regions of the world experience slow progress in bringing more women into the labor force, and face persistent gender earnings gaps and stubbornly high barriers for female career progression and political empowerment.
- Certain policies or lack of appropriate support for families and working mothers, social norms and informal institutions, and legal barriers are among the factors exacerbating gender disadvantages.
- Governments must step up their effort in achieving gender equality through policies such as:
  - removing gender-based legal restrictions,
  - introducing gender-responsive budgeting,
  - revising tax policies and creating space for priority spending,
  - supporting families, and
  - making finance accessible for women.
- Public intervention and campaigns aimed at changing people’s perceptions (informal institutions and social norms) can be instrumental in eliminating gender stereotypes that are often at the core of persisting gender disparities.
- Empowering women through their increased participation in government and corporate decision making will inform societies about women’s experiences and the challenges they face.
- Resolving problems of today – inequality and poverty, climate change, and health emergencies among others - will not be possible without taking on board women’s perspectives and gender equality.

*Source: wpiea2021059-print-pdf - 6. Summary*

### 2014. Available at

### wpiea2021059-print-pdf - 2014. Available at

### Major thematic clusters in the bibliography
- International Labour Organization (ILO) – extensive references to ILO publications on gender and labor:
  - “Resource Guide on Gender Issues in Employment and labour market policies: Working towards women’s economic empowerment and gender equality.” Geneva. 2014a.
  - “Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world.” Geneva. 2014b.
  - “The Gender Divide in Skills Development: progress, challenges and policy options for empowering women.” Geneva. 2014c.
  - “Women and the future of work: Beijing +20 and beyond.” Geneva. 2015a.
  - “Women on Boards - Building the female talent pipeline,” Geneva. 2015b.
  - “Illustrated guidelines for gender-responsive employment-intensive investment programmes.” Geneva. 2016a.
  - Women at Work Trends. Geneva. 2016b.
  - World Employment and Social Outlook: Trends for women 2017. Geneva. 2017.
  - World Employment Social Outlook: Trends for Women. Geneva. 2018a.
  - Global Wage Report 2018/19: What lies behind gender pay gaps. 2018b.

- IMF and IMF-related gender policy research:
  - IMF Policy Paper “Gender Budgeting in G7 Countries”. 2017.
  - Kolovich L., ed., Fiscal Policies and Gender Equality, International Monetary Fund. 2018.
  - Jain-Chandra, Sonali ; Kochhar, K. ; Newiak, M. ; Yang Y. ; Zoli, E., 2018, “Gender Equality: Which Policies Have the Biggest Bang for the Buck?” IMF Working Paper 18/105.
  - Kazandjian, R., Kolovich, L., Kochhar, K. and M. Newiak, 2016, “Gender Equality and Economic Diversification,” IMF Working Paper 16/140.
  - Ostry J., Alvarez, J., Espinoza, R., and C. Papageorgiou, 2018, “Economic Gains From Gender Inclusion: New Mechanisms, New Evidence,” IMF Staff Discussion Note 18/06.
  - Ostry, J., Berg, A., and C. Tsangarides, 2014, “Redistribution, Inequality, and Growth.” Staff Discussion Note 14/02.
  - Sahay, R., Cihak, M., 2018, “Women in Finance: A Case for Closing Gaps,” IMF Staff Discussion Note 18/05.
  - Stotsky, Janet G., 1996, “Gender bias in tax systems”, IMF Working Paper 96/99.
  - Stotsky, Janet G., 2016, “Gender Budgeting: Fiscal Context and Current Outcomes’, IMF Working Paper 16/149.

- Multilateral and international organization reports and indices:
  - Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) publications: “Closing the Gender Gap: Act Now” 2012; “The Pursuit of Gender Equality: An Uphill Battle,” 2017; work on unpaid household activities (2018a); “Is the Last Mile the Longest? Economic Gains from Gender Equality in Nordic Countries.” 2018b; SIGI 2019 Global Report.
  - World Economic Forum. 2018. The Global Gender Gap Report.
  - World Bank. 2011. World Development Report 2012: Gender Equality and Development. 2019. “Women, Business and the Law.”
  - UN Women Discussion Paper No. 26. 2018: “Gender equality and poverty are intrinsically linked: A contribution to the continued monitoring of selected Sustainable Development Goals.”
  - United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA). 2020 Technical Brief: Protecting Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights, and Promote Gender Equality.
  - United Nations World Contraceptive Use Database, 2020.
  - United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). 2012. “Overview of linkages between gender and climate change.” and 2020. “Tackling Social Norms: A game changer for gender inequalities.”

- Health, epidemics, and gender:
  - Interagency Standing Committee, 2014, Humanitarian Crisis in West Africa (EBOLA) Gender Alert. Sept 2014.
  - World Health Organisation (WHO) references: 2006 “Gender equality, work and health: a review of the evidence.”; 2007 “Addressing sex and gender in epidemic-prone infectious diseases.”; 2019 “Delivered by Women, Led by Men: a gender equity analysis of the global heath and social workforce. Human Resources for Health Observer Series No. 24.”; 2020 “Family planning/contraception methods.”
  - Wenham, C., Smith J., Morgan R., 2020, “Covid-19: the gendered impacts of the outbreak.” The Lancet, 6 March.

- Gender norms, social norms, media, and cultural drivers:
  - Jensen R., E. Oster, 2009, “The power of TV: cable television and women’s status in India”, The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol 124 (3): 1057-1094.
  - La Ferrara, E., Chong A., Duryea S., 2012, “Soap Operas and Fertility: Evidence from Brazil”, American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, Vol. 4(4): 1–31.
  - Markus, R., Harper, C., 2014, “Gender justice and social norms –processes of change for adolescent girls: Towards a conceptual framework,” Overseas Development Institute.
  - Welham, Bryn, 2018, “How to make ‘gender budgeting’ work in practice,” Overseas Development Institute, Insights.
  - “Tackling Social Norms: A game changer for gender inequalities.” UNDP. 2020.

- Legal frameworks, quotas, and corporate governance:
  - Norway mission to the EU. 2017. “Sharing Norway’s experience with gender quotas for boards.”
  - Smith, N. 2018, “Gender quotas on boards of directors,” IZA World of Labor.
  - Solal, I., Snellman, K., 2019, “Women Don’t Mean Business? Gender Penalty in Board Composition”, INSEAD Working Paper No. 2019/20/OBH.
  - Vargas-Valente, V., 2001, “Municipal Budgets and Democratic Governance in the Andean Region”, Gender Budget Initiatives: Strategies, Concepts, and Experiences.

- Education, skills, and labor-market participation:
  - ILO publications on skills and women’s employment (2014c, 2016b).
  - Nozek, B. et al. 2009, “National differences in gender–science stereotypes predict national sex differences in science and math achievement”, PNAS, Vol. 106, no. 26, pp. 10593–10597.
  - Korpi, W., 2000, “Faces of inequality: gender, class, and patterns of inequalities in different types of welfare states,” Soc. Polit. Int. Stud. Gend. State Soc. 7 (2): 127-191.

- Poverty, food insecurity, and development:
  - OXFAM, 2019. “Gender Inequalities and Food Insecurity,” Briefing Paper July 2019.
  - Nieuwenhuis, R., Munzi, T., Neugschwender, J., Omar, H., and Flaviana Palmisano, 2018, UN Women Discussion Paper No. 26.

- Finance, access to credit, microfinance, and women in finance:
  - Morsy, H., Youssef, H., 2017, “Access to Finance – mind the gender gap,” EBRD Working Paper No 202.
  - Zhang, Q. and Alberto Posso, 2017, “Microfinance and gender inequality: cross-country evidence”, Applied Economics Letters, 24:20, 1494-1498.
  - Sahay, R., Cihak, M., 2018, “Women in Finance: A Case for Closing Gaps,” IMF Staff Discussion Note 18/05.

### Representative empirical and analytical contributions cited
- Cross-country and macroeconomic analyses linking gender inclusion to economic outcomes:
  - Kazandjian et al., 2016, IMF Working Paper 16/140, “Gender Equality and Economic Diversification.”
  - Ostry et al., 2018, IMF Staff Discussion Note 18/06, “Economic Gains From Gender Inclusion: New Mechanisms, New Evidence.”
  - Ostry, Berg, and Tsangarides, 2014, Staff Discussion Note 14/02, “Redistribution, Inequality, and Growth.”
  - Jain-Chandra et al., 2018, IMF Working Paper 18/105, “Gender Equality: Which Policies Have the Biggest Bang for the Buck?”

- Micro- and programmatic studies on interventions and mechanisms:
  - Kring, Sriani Ameratunga, 2017, ILO Working Paper No. 235, “Gender in employment policies and programmes: What works for women?”
  - Welham et al., 2018, “Gender-responsive public expenditure management. A public finance management introductory guide,” Overseas Development Institute.

### Document-level observations (bibliographic composition)
- The reference list aggregates publications from international organizations (ILO, IMF, OECD, UN agencies, World Bank, WHO), academic journals (PNAS, The Quarterly Journal of Economics, American Economic Journal: Applied Economics), working papers, policy notes, and think-tank reports.
- Coverage spans thematic areas including: employment and labor markets; gender budgeting and fiscal policy; corporate boards and quotas; health, epidemics, and reproductive health; social norms and media effects; education and skills; access to finance and microfinance; and links between gender equality and macroeconomic performance.
- Temporal coverage of cited works spans at least from 1996 through 2020 based on publication years present in the listing.

*Source: Bibliography entries and references listed in wpiea2021059-print-pdf - 2014. Available at*

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_Source: https://www.imf.org/-/media/files/publications/wp/2021/english/wpiea2021059-print-pdf.pdf_