## JOBS AND GENDER — Section 1

## Source details

**Canonical URL:** [JOBS AND GENDER — Section 1](https://www.imf.org/-/media/websites/imf/imported-publications/external/chinese/pubs/ft/sdn/2013/_sdn1310c.pdf)

## Other formats

- [Markdown version](/-/media/websites/imf/imported-publications/external/chinese/pubs/ft/sdn/2013/_sdn1310c.pdf.md)
- [Structured JSON version](/-/media/websites/imf/imported-publications/external/chinese/pubs/ft/sdn/2013/_sdn1310c.pdf.json)

---

### Major themes and empirical findings
- Gender gaps in labor markets and aggregate productivity are documented (CuberesTeignier2012 — 27%).
- Studies link women's labor force participation to legal rights, political representation, childcare access, and social norms (Duflo2012; Aguirre2012; Barros2011; BarshYee2012).
- Evidence on female representation and firm performance and leadership: DeszoRoss 2011; Catalyst2004; McKinsey2008.
- Childcare access and public job creation programs affect women's labor market outcomes (Barros2011; AntonopoulosKim2011; Antonopoulos & Kim 2011).
- Trade and gender: DoLevchenkoRaddatz,2011; Do Q.-T., Levchenko, and Raddatz, 2011 — “Engendering Trade.”
- Microeconomic and macroeconomic links: DollarGatti1999; BrixiovaBulirComeneta 2001; LokoDiouf2009 (TFP).
- Selected numeric points and indicators as presented in the section:
  - FLFPR: 5% 9%12% 34%Aguirre2012
  - Fragmented country/group statistics and time series figures appear throughout (examples as printed): 50% 1 40% 2011; 50% 21% 63%; 25 106 80% 60% 2012 2010.
  - Time-series and cross-country indicator grids and tabulations for 1990–2013, 1970–2011, 1980–2011 are displayed (data sources referenced: WDI; KILM; IPU; ILO TRAVAIL database).
- Literature and datasets cited in the section include: ILO (2010, 2012a, 2012b, 2013 TRAVAIL), World Bank gender databases, Luxembourg Income Study Database Wave VI 2011, SIGI, and numerous academic papers and IMF Working Papers.

### Policy analysis and recommendations
- 提高关于平等待遇的法律权利意识
- 提供适当激励
- 赋予国家平等机构自主进行正式调查的权力：
- 提供替代性解决机制
- Additional policy items and programmatic approaches referenced:
  - Public job creation programs and investment in social care (AntonopoulosKim2011).
  - Expand access to affordable childcare — evidence from randomized trials and policy papers (Barros2011; GongKing2010).
  - Promote female representation in management and boards to improve firm performance (DeszoRoss2011; Lord Davies 2013; Committee for Economic Development 2012).
  - Use gender-responsive fiscal and social policies (Sarraf2003; IMF Board Paper ―Fiscal Policy and Employment in Advanced and Emerging Economies‖ 2012d).
  - Address legal and institutional barriers, monitor enforcement, and strengthen equality agencies (references across Stotsky2006a/b; Lagarde2013; Fernandez2013).

### Data, methods, and evidence base
- The section compiles cross-country evidence, time-series panels, randomized trials, and case studies; authors and sources included (partial list as printed): AgenorCanuto2013; Aguirre2012; AntonopoulosKim2011; Barros2011; Beaman2009; BhallaKaur2011; BlackdenHallward-Driemeier2013; Duflo2012; Heintz2006; Jaumotte2003; Kabeer2005; Kochhar2011; McKinsey2008; MammenPaxson; OECD (2008, 2012); Ruhm1998; Stotsky1996/2006a/2006b; SteinbergNakane2012; Soares2007; SIGI 2012; ILO TRAVAIL 2013.
- Multiple country-level and regional indicator tables and charts are presented for 1990–2013 and subperiods, with data sources including WDI, KILM, IPU, ILO TRAVAIL, LIS Wave VI 2011, and SIGI.

*Source: _sdn1310c - Section 1*

### Section 1

### JOBS AND GENDER — Section 1

### Major themes and empirical findings
- Gender gaps in labor markets and aggregate productivity are documented (CuberesTeignier2012 — 27%).
- Studies link women's labor force participation to legal rights, political representation, childcare access, and social norms (Duflo2012; Aguirre2012; Barros2011; BarshYee2012).
- Evidence on female representation and firm performance and leadership: DeszoRoss 2011; Catalyst2004; McKinsey2008.
- Childcare access and public job creation programs affect women's labor market outcomes (Barros2011; AntonopoulosKim2011; Antonopoulos & Kim 2011).
- Trade and gender: DoLevchenkoRaddatz,2011; Do Q.-T., Levchenko, and Raddatz, 2011 — “Engendering Trade.”
- Microeconomic and macroeconomic links: DollarGatti1999; BrixiovaBulirComeneta 2001; LokoDiouf2009 (TFP).
- Selected numeric points and indicators as presented in the section:
  - FLFPR: 5% 9%12% 34%Aguirre2012
  - Fragmented country/group statistics and time series figures appear throughout (examples as printed): 50% 1 40% 2011; 50% 21% 63%; 25 106 80% 60% 2012 2010.
  - Time-series and cross-country indicator grids and tabulations for 1990–2013, 1970–2011, 1980–2011 are displayed (data sources referenced: WDI; KILM; IPU; ILO TRAVAIL database).
- Literature and datasets cited in the section include: ILO (2010, 2012a, 2012b, 2013 TRAVAIL), World Bank gender databases, Luxembourg Income Study Database Wave VI 2011, SIGI, and numerous academic papers and IMF Working Papers.

### Policy analysis and recommendations (as listed in source)
- Policy suggestions and institutional measures to raise female labor force participation and equality (textual items and bullets in source):
  - 提高关于平等待遇的法律权利意识
  - 提供适当激励
  - 赋予国家平等机构自主进行正式调查的权力：
  - 提供替代性解决机制
- Additional policy items and programmatic approaches referenced:
  - Public job creation programs and investment in social care (AntonopoulosKim2011).
  - Expand access to affordable childcare — evidence from randomized trials and policy papers (Barros2011; GongKing2010).
  - Promote female representation in management and boards to improve firm performance (DeszoRoss2011; Lord Davies 2013; Committee for Economic Development 2012).
  - Use gender-responsive fiscal and social policies (Sarraf2003; IMF Board Paper ―Fiscal Policy and Employment in Advanced and Emerging Economies‖ 2012d).
  - Address legal and institutional barriers, monitor enforcement, and strengthen equality agencies (references across Stotsky2006a/b; Lagarde2013; Fernandez2013).

### Data, methods, and evidence base
- The section compiles cross-country evidence, time-series panels, randomized trials, and case studies; authors and sources included (partial list as printed): AgenorCanuto2013; Aguirre2012; AntonopoulosKim2011; Barros2011; Beaman2009; BhallaKaur2011; BlackdenHallward-Driemeier2013; Duflo2012; Heintz2006; Jaumotte2003; Kabeer2005; Kochhar2011; McKinsey2008; MammenPaxson; OECD (2008, 2012); Ruhm1998; Stotsky1996/2006a/2006b; SteinbergNakane2012; Soares2007; SIGI 2012; ILO TRAVAIL 2013.
- Multiple country-level and regional indicator tables and charts are presented for 1990–2013 and subperiods, with data sources including WDI, KILM, IPU, ILO TRAVAIL, LIS Wave VI 2011, and SIGI.

*Source: _sdn1310c - Section 1*

### Section 2

### _sdn1310c - Section 2

### References on Social Programs and Gender Indices
- Osorio, 2007, ―Evaluating the Impact of Brazil‘s Bolsa Familia: Cash Transfer Programmes in Comparative Perspective,‖ International Poverty Centre Evaluation Note No. 1.
- Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI), 2012. http://genderindex.org (accessed on June 17, 2013).
- Stavropoulou, M., and N. Jones, 2013, ―Off the Balance Sheet. The Impact of the Economic Crisis on Girls and Young Women. A Review of the Evidence.‖ http://www.plan-eu.org/content/uploads/2013/01/Economic-report-2013_Girls-and-young-women.pdf (accessed on September 17, 2013)
- Steinberg, C., and M. Nakane, 2012, ―Can Women Save Japan?‖ IMF Working Paper 12/48 (Washington).
- Stotsky, J., 2006a, ―Gender Budgeting,― IMF Working Paper 06/232 (Washington).
- Stotsky, J., 2006b, ―Gender and Its Relevance to Macroeconomic Policy: A Survey,‖ IMF Working Paper 06/233 (Washington).
- Stotsky, J., 1996, ―Gender Bias in Tax Systems,‖ IMF Working Paper 96/99 (Washington).

### References on Jobs and Gender
- Tsani, Stella, Leonidas Paroussos, Costas Fragiadakis, Ioannis Charalambidis and Pantelis Capros, 2012, ―Female Labour Force Participation and Economic Development in Southern Mediterranean Countries: What Scenarios for 2030?‖ MEDPRO Technical Report No. 19, European Commission.
- Tsounta, E., 2006, ―Why Are Women Working So Much More in Canada? An International Perspective,‖ IMF Working Paper 06/92 (Washington).
- United Nations (UN) and International Labour Organization (ILO), 2012, ―Decent Work and Women‘s Economic Empowerment: Good Policy and Practice.‖ Policy Brief, UN Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women and the ILO.
- Wolf, Charles, Jr., Siddhartha Dalal, Julie DaVanzo, Eric V. Larson, Alisher Akhmedjonov, Harun Dogo, Meilinda Huang, and Siliva Montoya, 2011, ―China and India, 2025, A Comparative Assessment,‖ RAND National Defense Research Institute.
- World Bank, 2011, World Development Report 2012. Gender Equality and Development (Washington).
- World Bank, 2012a, World Development Report 2013. Jobs (Washington).
- World Bank, 2012b, ―Accelerating Progress on Gender Mainstreaming and Gender-Related MDGs. A Progress Report,‖ IDA 16 Mid-Term Review (Washington).
- World Bank, World Development Indicators, 2013. http://data.worldbank.org/data-catalog/world-development-indicators (accessed on June 17, 2013).

*Page 31*

---


_Source: https://www.imf.org/-/media/websites/imf/imported-publications/external/chinese/pubs/ft/sdn/2013/_sdn1310c.pdf_