IMF Working Papers

This paper presents the most comprehensive and up-to-date panel dataset on global trade invoicing currency and examines recent pattern shifts with a focus on geopolitical alignment. Using data for 132 countries from 1990 to 2023—including new coverage of the Chinese renminbi—we document five key findings. First, the US dollar remains dominant, with global invoicing shares broadly stable. Second, renminbi use has grown steadily and expanded beyond Asia, though it remains modest. Third, countries not geopolitically aligned with the US continue to rely on the dollar, though this reliance has declined in a few key economies. Fourth, since 2021, the correlation between the use of a given invoicing currency and the geopolitical distance to its issuer has become more negative, reflecting growing polarization. Fifth, there is no robust evidence consistent with effective policy initiatives to reduce dollar reliance in oil exports. These findings highlight the resilience of dominant currencies and suggest emerging fragmentation in invoicing patterns along geopolitical lines.